Education is spreading its wings and strengthening its roots globally. Students don’t shy away from crossing boundaries and traveling to different poles for achieving better education. Different countries serve niche in different fields of education. While Scandinavian states like Norway and Denmark offer a great scope for IT studies, UK offers state-of-the-art management studies options and Central Europe (Spain and Germany) is a hub for engineering studies.

Talking about Europe, it has carved a niche as a prominent destination for qualitative education abroad among international students. You name the education field and Europe has it- fashion designing, hotel management, engineering, management, study of medicine, etc. Europe is acting as an emerging education focal point. Scholars from all over are considering European education to be a push start for a successful career. It is undoubtedly becoming a hot spot for global students, Indian students being a major chunk of it. A study from the European Commissioner for Education reveals that every sixth student in eminent European colleges is an Indian.

The study also affirms that Europe witnesses a big dropout rate when it comes to higher education. Therefore, it has opened its doors for international students. This cross-cultural education system is being mutually beneficial. While Europe offers leading edge opportunities and resources for educational courses, there are thousands of talented students outside Europe who take benefit of the avant-grade facilities.

Lately, European Education is seen as an education extravaganza. This paradigm shift in the image of European Education is credited to the ever improving education programs by the European Parliament and European Education Commissioners. They are also attempting at increasing their associations and widening their campaigns with other countries so as to spread the scope of education overseas. The interesting thing however is that Europe is all keen on sending its students to India just as it wants Indians to pursue Education there. They deem good understanding of the education in IIT and other premier educational institutes in India, and are educating their citizens of the high esteems and scope of education in India.

Students and scholars have a wide market laid ahead of them. This educational cross flow is sure to bring major positive changes in years to come.

Student education loans are the utmost necessary for those who suffer from shortage of money for pursuing higher education. Now in India, getting such loans has become easy and students are making use of these loans for both foreign as well as domestic education purposes.

Education is the most important asset for a country, so that it can have educated youngsters who can contribute much to its development India is an emerging country and it requires a lot of educated people who can make this country the most developed country in the world. Presently, Indian government has made many amendments in its education system, especially in loans for education. According to various educational surveys, many bright Indian students gave up their higher education due to shortage of money. In order to avoid such issues, Indian government has told various banks to offer easy loans to bright students for pursuing higher education.

When there is an acute shortage of funds for education, then parents should go for student education loans. All the banks in India offer easy loans for students who wish to go for higher education. As these banks are offering such loans, students facing monetary problems need not to give up their plans for higher education. The interest charges incurred on such loans are very flexible as well as affordable.

It has been seen that many students are going for student education loans as the Indian government has made good changes for getting these loans. There is a consistent rise in the number of students going for such loans over the few years. The present figure of students going for educational aids is soon going to increase. Besides, student education loans’ interest rates are lower than that of the personal loan interest rates.

Educational fund loans are classified into two sub-types. These are foreign education loans and domestic education loans. There is a good benefit of such loans as students need not to pay an interest till the time they complete their education and take up a job. As soon as they start earning money, they can start repaying the instalments to their respective banks. These are the best facilities which students can make use of, after all, there is no headache of paying EMIs right from the moment they take the loans from banks. Now both students as well as parents can relax and thus, they can fulfil their dreams.

It is true that several banks provide financial loans for pursuing higher education, however, there are a few things which students and parents have to bear in their minds. Students as well as parents need to fulfil all the eligibility criteria laid down by banks. Some of the eligibility criteria are like meeting the minimum percentage required for applying for loans, parents having secured sources of income, what kinds of institutions students are choosing for pursuing their higher education etc.

When financial loans for foreign education becoming very flexible, the number of students going to abroad has increased a lot. This is a good sign for India as it can have citizens who are nurtured by foreign universities as well. Hence, the student education loans are mushrooming the growth of India.

Terminology

The federal law governing special education is called the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, or IDEA.   It is codified in Title 20, United States Code, starting at section 1400.   It was initially passed in 1975.   A number of major reauthorizations have taken place.   The two most recent were in 1997 and in December 2004.   The December 2004 changes took effect, for the most part, on July 1, 2005. The changes made in the 2004 Act are numerous and varied, but perhaps not revolutionary.

In early 2002, President Bush signed the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) which is intended to ensure quality education and a high level of accountability.   Many of the provisions of NCLB had an uncertain impact on IDEA 1997.   Hence, IDEA 2004 attempts to clarify the impact of NCLB.

The IDEA speaks in terms of a State Education Authority (SEA) and a Local Education Authority (LEA).   In Connecticut, the SEA is the State Department of Education.   The LEA is generally the local school district, which is referred to as the district or the Board.   In this context, the Board refers to the district’s administration, not to the actual Board of Education and its elected members.

State and Federal Law

Connecticut passed its special education law in 1967.   The federal Education of All Handicapped Children Act initially passed in 1975.   Hence, the Connecticut act predates the federal.   The federal law did not pre-empt the field.   Rather, federal courts can enforce both federal and relevant state law.   “Relevant state law” is law which is not inconsistent with federally mandated requirements, both substantive and procedural, of the Act, and includes, inter alia, procedural safeguards which are more stringent than required procedures set forth in the federal law.   Burlington v. Department of Education, 736 F. 2d 773 (1st Cir. 1984), aff’d 471 U. S. 359 (1985).   For the most part, Connecticut and federal requirements have converged.   Yet, most of the detailed procedures for eligibility and due process stem from Connecticut law, as does the nomenclature.   In Connecticut, there is a Planning and Placement Team (PPT) meeting.   In New York, it is called a Committee on Special Education (CSE) meeting.   In the federal
law, it is called an Individualized Education Plan Team (IEP Team) meeting.

The Connecticut Approach

The Connecticut State Department of Education (SDE) takes a hand-off approach to local school boards.   This compares to New York, where the state department closely regulates most aspects of special education.   The Connecticut SDE advises local school boards on questions, when raised.   Indeed, SDE also provides advice to parents.   The state approves private special education schools, but the approval is largely a matter of seeing if the right boxes are checked, rather than looking at the quality of the education provided.   The state, pursuant to federal law, receives and processes complaints, but appears to be interested only in procedural requirements, avoiding making any comments on the substance of the claim.   And, the state runs the due process and mediation systems.   This is all done by a tiny group of people in Hartford.   The SDE also runs the Special Education Resource Center (SERC), which serves as an information clearinghouse, library, and training center.   As a general rule, the State Department of
Education sees itself as a consultant, rather than as a regulator.

The Special Education Universe in Connecticut

For the 2007-2008 school year, there were 68,989 children in Connecticut who were designated as eligible for special education services.   This number is a drop of 5,000 from five years earlier.   Special education students represent about 12% of the total student population of 574,287.   Districts vary widely in percentages designated as eligible for special education, with some districts near 5% and others over 18%.

Among disabilities, the largest group, comprising 32% of the special education population, consists of students with learning disabilities (LD).   Five years ago, learning disabled students represented 38% of the special education population.   The next largest group, accounting for 21% of the special education population, contains students with speech or language impairments.   Other health impairment (OHI) accounts for 17%, severe emotional disturbance (SED) is 8. 5% and intellectual disabilities (ID) are 4%.   Some 6. 4% of special education students in Connecticut carry the Autism label.   The racial differences are, however, significant.   The following chart shows the 2007-2008 percentage of each racial/ethnic grouping that has a particular special education designation.

EDUCATION IN INDIA
India has an ancient tradition of education. The world’s first university was established in
Tashkila in 700 B. C. Indian mathematicians introduced the zero, the decimal system and the
method of multiplication.

PRIMARY EDUCATION

India has made huge progress in terms of increasing primary education attendance rate andexpanding literacy to approximately two thirds of the population. . The National Council ofEducational Research and Training (NCERT) is the apex body for school education in India.

SECONDARY EDUCATION
The National Policy on Education (NPE), 1986, has provided for environment awarenes,science
and technology education, and introduction of traditional elements such as Yoga into the Indian secondary school system. Another feature of India’s secondary school system is its emphasis on profession based vocational training to help students attain skills for finding a vocation of his/her choosing.
Tertiary education
India’s higher education system is the third largest in the world, after China and the United States. . Some institutions of India, such as the Indian Institutes of Technology (IITs), have been globally acclaimed for their standard of education.
Women’s Education
Women have much lower literacy rate. The number of literate women among the female population of India was between 2-6% from the British Raj onwards to the formation of the Republic of India in 1947. the Indian government has tried to provide incentives for girls’ school attendance through programs for midday meals, free books, and uniforms. Private education Because of poor quality of public education, 27% of Indian children are privately educated. Private schools cover the entire curriculum and offer extra-curricular activities such as science fairs, general knowledge, sports, music and dramaMost teachers in private schools are female, graduates and reasonably experienced. .
ONLINE DEGREES
Online degrees courses in business, education, information technology, real estate and even healthcare allow you to advance your career without disrupting your life. You can study at home, on your own time, at your own pace. A perfect choice for the working professional, online courses are practical, focused, and relevant to your career. Electroniclearningis a type of Technology supported education/learning (TSL) where the medium of instruction is through computer technology, particularly involving digital technologies. . E-learning is naturally suited to distance learning and flexible learning, but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face teaching, in which case the term Blended learning is commonly used.
Goals of e-learning
E-Learning lessons are generally designed to guide students through information or to help
students perform in specific tasks. Information based e-Learning content communicatesinformation to the student

Communication technologies used in e-learning Communication technologies are generally categorized as asynchronous or synchronousAsynchronous activities use technologies such as blogs, wikis, and discussion boards. Synchronous activities involve the exchange of ideas and information with one or more
participants during the same period of time.

Benefits of eLearning versus traditional classroom settings
eLearning allows people to avoid travel, thus reducing the overall carbon output. eLearningis
a more environmentally friendly solution. 2. Quality education, made affordable. . . 3. Convenience and flexibility to learners:

ONLINE EDUCATION IN INDIA
online learning programs are gaining popularity day by day. In other words, online learning programs are premium education programs that are aimed to enhance the knowledge of students as well as individuals by using modern technologies and guidelines of skilled teachers.

Added Benefits of Online Learning Program In India
Online learning programs are different from traditional education systems and there is no need of a classroom and face-to-face interaction with teachers.
1    No need to actually live on campus or near the university
2.     Great flexibility in the type of course you choose to study
3.     A wide range of online programs to choose from.

Types of Degrees Available
1. Associate Degree   
2. Bachelor’s Degree    
3. Master’s Degree
4. Doctorate Degree
5. Degree Resources

ONLINE UNIVERSITY
we provide information on various career courses, important  educational institutes like IITs, IIMs, JNU, DU and other MBA colleges. we have details on online education and different distance-learning courses andspreading numerous opportunities available to the Indian students already pursuing education in India. . . here some top 10 online university
1. Nalanda Open University (Patna     Bihar)
2. All India Institute of Medical Sciences (Delhi     Delhi)
3. Indira Gandhi National Open University (Delhi     Delhi)
4. Guru Jambheshwar University (Hisar     Haryana)
5. Maharshi Dayanand University (Rohtak     Haryana )
6. Shri Mata Vaishno Devi University (Jammu Tawi Jammu & Kashmir)
7. Manipal Academy Of Higher Education (Manipal     Karnataka)
8. University Of Mumbai (Mumbai     Maharashtra )
9. Birla Institute Of Technology & Scinece (Pilani     Rajasthan )

10. University Of Lucknow (Lucknow     Uttar Pradesh).

Are you kind of person who likes to work with children? Are you loves to giving training and teaching to young people? Are you a good communicator especially with children? If you answered yes to the questions above, then online education degree will help you to gain the skills and enhanced you knowledge in education field. Hence, help you to advance your career working in education fields.

The booming education and health sector offers many jobs that involve working with children and youths. According to the U. S. Bureau of Labor, the education and health sector is going to grow by 30. 6 percent between now and 2014-faster than any other industries. Seeing the encouraging growth in education section, earn an online education degree will bring you to a brighter future.

In order start or advance your career in education related fields, you need to look for a related online degrees; there are many prestigious online colleges and universities offer degree in education and teaching. Among the featured online universities which offer various online education degree programs include:

Capella University

Master of Science in Education focus on area in elementary classroom teaching, secondary classroom teaching, advanced instruction in mathematics, advanced instruction in science, teacher leadership, and virtual school teaching.

Master of Science in Education with concentration in Curriculum and Instruction is a specialized master degree offers to those licensed K12 teachers who looking to gain key competencies through theoretical study and collaboration with seasoned practitioners. You will acquire tools and techniques to help your district design instructional models and assessments that focus on increasing student achievement.

Master of Science in Education with concentration in Leadership in Educational Administration, offer to those K12 teachers who are looking for education career advancement in school administration.

Walden University

Online master education degrees offered by Walden University include area in education leadership, Grades K-6 Elementary Reading & Mathematics, Grades 6-8 and K-5 mathematics which provide you with the key skills and knowledge to success in educational field.

University of Phoenix

University of Phoenix’s education master degrees are mainly focus on education leadership and administration, education technology specialized in computer education.

If you are interested in early childhood education, then you should look for online education programs offer by Lehigh Valley College, Sullivan University, Rasmussen College, Hesser College. Since the introduction of concept “Education Start from Age 0″; the childhood education and child care management related careers are in a booming trend. Students who graduate with a childhood education degree usually go to work immediately after graduation due to high demand in this field.

If you are gaga for education, opportunities for meaningful and well-paid work abound. Some other career possibilities include: Child Psychiatrist, Children Youth and Family Counselor, Doula, Pediatric Rehabilitation Counselor, and Play Therapist.

In short, the statistics show that the education section is in the booming trend and educational experts are always in demand. Online education degrees will prepare you with the necessary skills and get you success in this highly demand job marketplace.

Take a visit to http://www. studykiosk. com for more information on all online degrees available. Earning your education is one of the biggest and most important investments in your life. Our goal is to help you quickly find online degrees and online degree programs. We feature over 1,000 online degrees and accredited online degree programs.

Medieval education is about education that was conducted in the medieval period. Medieval education is seen as quite an unusual form of education. However, by the 15th century, there were options for a student to be educated further. Some schools even housed both genders, but this was during the day only. Children were taught their basics, such as how to read and write. This is because these were the basic requirements if they wanted to be accepted under apprenticeship in any guild.
Medieval education also consisted of peasant children going to school. However, they made up a very small number. They were taught how to read and write, and also studied basic math. This education for peasants was usually conducted at a monastery.
As part of medieval education, noble girls and even boys were sent to learn at nunneries. There, they would receive their basic education. The nuns taught these students how to read and write too. They would also teach them how to pray. Girls were additionally taught how to spin and do needlework amid other domestic skills. http://www. 360career. com  These were inculcated in order to prepare them for later life, as these were basic skills required when a woman got married.
If a child took his or her education seriously at a monastery, he or she would have a monastic life. However, this was quite rare for an average townsman or peasant. Also, these individuals would be carefully selected for these ranks. If they were deemed suitable according to their demeanour, they would be brought up by the monks.
Today, medieval education practices are still visible. The same monastery education students are given is a clear reflection of it. The education that children receive at missionary schools in various parts of the world also reflects similar forms of education. A major difference that is seen is the widespread existence of books. In medieval times, there were many schools that operated without the use of books. Students were taught by skilled masters, and were often educated for dubious benefits. The rich or others that did provide education in medieval times did so for their personal gain. There were very few that really wanted to educate people in the true spirit of enlightening more minds.

As time has passed by, some aspects of medieval education have faded while others have remained. It can be argued that the aspects of medieval education that were useful for the purpose of education have remained. Regardless of some characteristics remaining, the overall process has changed a great deal. This is because education could not have the same face as it did hundreds of years ago. Today’s education is different from medieval education in so many ways. For example, you have the inclusion of group work and activity based learning. You also have the inclusion of computers for education in this modern age. No one in the medieval period would have ever contemplated the use of such items.

Another important development to mention, and one that is used almost throughout the world is the Montessori method. This is something that did not exist in the medieval period, and it took many years for it to be popularized since Maria Montessori first used it. Indeed, the Montessori Method cannot be likened to any medieval method of education. It was developed independently as an innovative teaching method. In addition to the Montessori Method, there are other teaching areas today that have been developed without any medieval education influence.

Though medieval education has provided the fundamentals for formal education, some people prefer to deny medieval education methods the credit it is given. They believe that the formal method of students being seated in classrooms would have developed later anyway, whether medieval education used this arrangement or not. This does make sense because it is unthinkable for any other arrangement to be used. It is further argued that it is more likely that this would have been the case in modern education because student interaction is encouraged. For better student interaction, a classroom of a suitable number of students would have been recommended. Regardless of these arguments, we still find many traces of medieval education in our modern setups today.

For more about Medieval Education visit:  http://www. 360career. com/content/Medieval-Education. asp

Forms of Domestic Violence and Development of

Women through Education

INTRODUCTION

            However much a mother may love her children, it is all but impossible for her to provide high-quality child care if she herself is poor and oppressed, illiterate and uninformed, anemic and unhealthy, has five or six other children, lives in a slum or shanty, has neither clean water nor safe sanitation, and if she is without the necessary support either from health services, or from her society, or from the father of her childen.
                                                          – Vulimiri Ramalingaswami, “The Asian Enigma”

            Women constitute almost half of the population in the world. But the hegemonic masculine ideology made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal opportunities in different parts of the world. The rise of feminist ideas has, however, led to the tremendous improvement of women’s condition through out the world in recent times. Access to education has been one of the most pressing demands of theses women’s rights movements. Women’s education in India has also been a major preoccupation of both the government and civil society as educated women can play a very important role in the development of the country.      

·                     India has world’s largest number of professionally qualified women.

·                     India has largest population of working women in the world.

·                     India has more number of doctors, surgeons, scientists, professors than the US.

What is Domestic Violence?

            Domestic violence is controlling behaviour and includes all kinds of physical, sexual, economic, psychological and emotional abuse within all kinds of intimate relationships. The perpetrators of domestic violence or abuse are usually men and the victims or survivors are usually women and children that they know. It includes:

• Punching and slapping.

• Kicking and hair pulling.

• Biting and pinching.

• Pushing and shoving.

• Being forced to have sex.

• Being beaten or cut with other objects.

• Disrespect, neglect and emotional blackmail.

• Verbal abuse and swearing.

• Being prevented from going out or seeing people – being isolated.

FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

The following are the forms of Domestic Violence:

1.       Physical Abuse

2.       Sexual Abuse

3.       Psychological Abuse

4.       Emotional Abuse

5.       Financial Abuse

1. Psysical Abuse:     

            Physical abuse is the most visible form of abuse and most likely (with sexual abuse) to give rise to criminal charges. Injuries include black eyes, cut lips, bruising, fractures, deafness, blindness, internal bleeding, missing teeth, persistent ill health, miscarriages, and injuries to a foetus and death. Injury sites are often concealed by clothing or hair. It can include slaps, shoves, pushing, being thrown across the room or down the stairs, kicking, stamping, strangulation, burns and scalds, being attacked with weapons such as knives, household objects, firearms etc internally as well as externally.

2. Sexual Abuse:

            Sexual Abuse in an abusive relationship is another form of violence, control and degradation. It includes rape, sexual assaults (including with implements),enforced prostitution, enforced sexual practices including being forced to watch or engage in pornography.

3. Psychological Abuse:

            Psychological abuse examples include “Jeckyll and Hyde” behaviour, preventing contact with friends and families, constant belittling and humiliating things being said, claims that children will be removed if anyone is told of abuse, controlling behaviours, deliberately enforcing dependency, constant statements that the victim is mentally ill etc.

4. Emotional Abuse:

            Emotional abuse is an attack on victims’ personality and well being and is often described as worse than physical violence. It may be referred to as “mind-games”. It frequently amounts to the abuser assuming a tight and unhealthy control of all members of the family, which may become increasingly isolated in the community.

            Examples include threats of violence to all members of family, constant criticism of the victim saying she is ugly, ignorant or worthless, using the children as ammunition, family life and mood being dictated by abuser (abuser-centric) continual questioning, humiliation in public, playing on community and cultural fears, threats to have the children removed, threats to kill or have deported, threat that the abuser will commit suicide, threats and actual violence to family pets etc.

5. Financial Abuse:

            Financial Abuse is essentially the deprivation of and / or the control of money whether earned or benefits.

            An abuser may refuse to pay bills or prevent the victim from having any control over the family finances. The abuser may steal money belonging to the victim or children. Essential services such as gas and electricity may be cut off. The mother may be forced to support the children solely on what she can earn without assistance or child benefit if this is claimed by the abuser. An abuser may deliberately spend money on himself or sell the woman’s possessions and family furniture.

CRIME AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA

·        One crime against women every three minutes

·        One rape every 29 minutes

·        One dowry death case every 77 minutes

·        One case of cruelty by husband and relatives every nine minutes

·        Once suicide every 4 hours

Source: National Crime Records Bureau

The main problems of Indian women:

·         Malnutrition: India has exceptionally high rates of child malnutrition, because tradition in India requires that women eat last and least throughout their lives, even when pregnant and lactating. Malnourished women give birth to malnourished children, perpetuating the cycle.

·         Poor Health: Females receive less health care than males. Many women die in childbirth of easily prevented complications. Working conditions and environmental pollution further impairs women’s health.

·         Lack of education: Families are far less likely to educate girls than boys, and far more likely to pull them out of school, either to help out at home or from fear of violence.

·         Overwork: Women work longer hours and their work is more arduous than men’s, yet their work is unrecognized. Men report that “women, like children, eat and do nothing. ” Technological progress in agriculture has had a negative impact on women.

·         Unskilled: In women’s primary employment sector – agriculture – extension services overlook women.

·         Mistreatment: In recent years, there has been an alarming rise in atrocities against women in India, in terms of rapes, assaults and dowry-related murders. Fear of violence suppresses the aspirations of all women. Female infanticide and sex-selective abortions are additional forms of violence that reflect the devaluing of females in Indian society.

·         Powerlessness: While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution, legal protection has little effect in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions. Women lack power to decide who they will marry, and are often married off as children. Legal loopholes are used to deny women inheritance rights.

            India has a long history of activism for women’s welfare and rights, which has increasingly focused on women’s economic rights. A range of government programs have been launched to increase economic opportunity for women, although there appear to be no existing programs to address the cultural and traditional discrimination against women that leads to her abject conditions.

GOVERNEMNT ROLE TO MINIMIZE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA

            Overall, a crime against women is committed every three minutes in India, according to India’s National Crime Records Bureau. Despite the scale of the problem, there had been no specific legislation to deal with actual abuse or the threat of abuse at home. Domestic violence, under the new law, includes “actual abuse or the threat of abuse whether physical, sexual, emotional or economic,” a statement from the federal ministry of women and child development said.

            “We have been trying for long to protect women from domestic violence. In India alone, around 70% of women are victim of these violent acts in one or the other form,” junior minister for women and child development Renuka Chowdhury told the Press Trust of India news agency. They say a bill alone will not help in preventing domestic abuse; what is needed is a change in mind sets.

            In January 1992, the National Commission for Women (NCW), was set up as a statutory body under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt. of India ) to review the constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.

            There are so many government and non-government organizations are working for the benefits of women. Both Central and State governments are continuing so many programmes for the development of women in the country.

 DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION

            You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women.
                                                                                                                 - Jawaharlal Nehru

Female Literacy in India:

            According to last census held in 2001, the percentage of female literacy in the country is 54. 16%. The literacy rate in the country has increased from 18. 33% in 1951 to 65. 38% as per 2001 census. The female literacy rate has also increased from 8. 86% in 1951 to 54. 16%. It is noticed that the female literacy rate during the period 1991-2001 increased by 14. 87% whereas male literacy rate rose by 11. 72%. Hence the female literacy rate actually increased by 3. 15% more compared to male literacy rate.

Factors Responsible for Poor Female Literacy Rate:

Historically, a variety of factors have been found to be responsible for poor female literate rate, viz.

·         Gender based inequality.

·         Social discrimination and economic exploitation.

·         Occupation of girl child in domestic chores.

·         Low enrolment of girls in schools.

·         Low retention rate and high dropout rate.

The main strategies adopted by the Government for increasing female literacy in the country include:

1.       National Literacy Mission for imparting functional literacy

2.       Universalisation for Elementary Education

3.       Non-Formal Education

History of Women’s Education in India: Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women’s education in India. During this period, various socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. However women’s education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women’s literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971 only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 54. 16% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 14. 87% as compared to 11. 72 % of that of male literacy rate.

Importance of Women’s Education in India: Women’s education in India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but also can provide better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population.

Obstacles: Gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of women’s education in India. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 75% according to the 2001 census, the female literacy rate is just 54. 16%. Prevailing prejudices, low enrollment of girl child in the schools, engagements of girl children in domestic works and high drop out rate are major obstacles in the path of making all Indian women educated.

            According to the Women and Child Development study, 45 percent of Indian women are slapped, kicked or beaten by their husbands. India also had the highest rate of violence during pregnancy. Of the women reporting violence, 50 percent were kicked, beaten or hit when pregnant. About 74. 8 percent of the women who reported violence have attempted to commit suicide. It shows the importance of education. Educated woman has more strength and power to face the challenges when compared to uneducated woman.

            Kumud Sharma of the Centre for Women’s Development Studies in New Delhi traced the correlation between education and domestic violence to patriarchal attitudes. “Educated women are aware of their rights,” she said. “They are no longer willing to follow commands blindly. When they ask questions, it causes conflicts, which, in turn, leads to violence. In many Indian states, working women are asked to hand over their paycheck to the husband and have no control over their finances. So, if they stop doing so or start asserting their right, there is bound to be friction. “

            It is necessary to establish some more colleges and universities in India.   The number of Residential Schools for SC/ST and BC’s is not sufficient today. So, increase the number of these schools in the both rural and urban areas. Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens. Take care about future generation. Then only India will become developed country in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

            Now we are living in the modern and technological world. Women are also entering in all the fields like men for doing job. Educated women have better opportunity compared to uneducated women in the society. They are facing so many problems in the society. With the help of education and law and order it is easy to escape from those problems. So it is necessary to educate all types of women in the society. Education gives strength, wealth, health and power to the individual.

 According to Swami Vivekandanda:

“We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind increased and intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet”.       

            The plight of women in medieval India and at the starting of modern India can be summed up in the words of great poet Rabindranath Tagore:

“O Lord Why has you not given woman the right to conquer her destiny?
Why does she have to wait head bowed,
By the roadside, Waiting with tired patience,
Hoping for a miracle in the morrow?”

References:

1.       National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2001). The National Reading Panel: Reports of the Subgroups.

2.       UNESCO Institute for Statistics: Literacy rates, youth (15-24) and adult (15+), by region and gender (September 2006 Assessment).

3.    Child and Women Development Report, (2006), Ministry of Women and Child  

      Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

4.     National Family Health Survey, (2006), Government of India, New Delhi.

5.     National Crime Records Bureau, (2007), Government of India, New Delhi.

6.    Census of India, (2001), Government of India, New Delhi.

.

*****

World Development Report 2004: through the lenses of Marketing of Education Service in India 

Dr. Amalesh Bhowal,Professor, Department of Commerce, Assam University.

E-mail: amalesh_b1@rediffmail. com

 1. 1     Introduction:

Article 10, contained in the Declaration On The Responsibilities Of The Present Generation Towards Future Generations, mentions that  “The present generations should ensure the conditions of equitable, sustainable and universal socio-economic development of future generations… Education is an important instrument…”

There is a new looking at the world of education using the lenses of marketing. Evidence is the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It aimed at deregulating international markets in services, including education. Corollary: Education is a commodity too which can be traded; in other words, there exists ‘Educational Service Market. To operate in that market, we need Principles and Theories for Marketing of Education Service. ] “The idea behind these principles is the creation of a open, global market place where services, like education, can be traded… GATS covers the educational services of all countries whose educational systems are not exclusively provided by the public sector, or those educational systems that have commercial purposes. ”

In the mean time, the World Bank has published “World Development Report 2004 – Making Services Work for Poor People”. It provides a practical framework for making the services that contribute to ‘human development work’ for poor people. The report included services that have the most direct link with human development – education, health, water, sanitation, and electricity.

1. 2     Main Objective of the paper:

In the backdrop of the above-mentioned International Prescriptions, the paper attempted to explore about the rationality of application of Principles of Service Marketing and lessons to be learnt from World Development Report 2004 regarding Marketing of Education Service.

1. 3     Rationality of the study:

This type of study may lead to the understanding of the debate whether “Marketing of Education Service” is synonymous with the “Commercialisation of Education Service”.

2. 1     Marketing of Education Service [MES]:

            Marketing of Education Service refers to performing of activities [either with profit motive or service motive] which directs the flow of educational goods and services from the producer, provider and developer to the consumer of goods and services to satisfy the needs of parties involved [i. e. policy makers, provider and customers] like Psychological, economic and safety, Social, esteem and self-actualisation needs.

2. 2     Current Failure of MES:

 Current Education Services to the poor are failing poor people due to: –

[1] Diversion of large share of the education budget spending towards the non-poor,

[2] Non-reaching of the share of the budget, directed to the poor, to the front line service providers

[3] Disincentives to service providers, Prevalence of public corruption and undesirable political influence in education,

[4] Lower level demand for education because of cultural factors.

Thus, education failed because of over dominance of Finance function; and under importance of Marketing Function.

2. 3     Rationality Of Adopting The Principles Of Service Marketing In MES:

            The report asks “putting poor people at the centre of the service provision”. This is akin to the thinking of Customer centric marketing of Srvices. The societies, generally, choose the long route because there are evidences of market failures. Similarly the societies feel traditional short route [i. e. consumers’ power over providers] is inadequate viewed from equity-dimension. But there exists evidences of the “government failures” associated with the long route; and, “they may be so serve that, in some cases, the market solution may actually leave poor people better off”. This is necessary for balancing the problems associated with the long route of accountability with the short route.

2. 4     Dimensions Of MES:

 Dimensions in respect of the Marketing of Education Service are of two types:

[A] Marketing functions related to educational goods: – These functions include [1] Marketing Research and [2] Targeting customers with appropriate Market Mix i. e. Developing, Pricing, Promoting, and, Distributing Educational Goods or Educational product.

[B] Marketing functions related to educational services: – These functions include [1] Marketing Research and [2] Targeting customers with appropriate Market Mix i. e. [a] Developing Product, [b] Pricing, [c] Promoting, [d] Distributing, [e] Orienting in-house People, [f] Processing, [g] Providing Physical evidence, [h] having and following policy, and, [i] Ensuring Peoples Participation in Education Service.

Interestingly, the report seems to be absolutely silent in respect of ‘Marketing functions related to educational goods’.

2. 5     Relationships, Triangle And Types In MES:

The report argued for three key relationships in MES: [a] Between poor people and providers, [b] between poor people and policymakers, and [c] between policy makers and providers. Thus, there exists Education Service Marketing Triangle. Policy Makers, service providers and customers/poor people in fact, should work together for MES [from diagram]. But they require three different types of marketing -

[a] Internal marketing between Policy Makers and Providers-to enable service promise.

[b] External Marketing between Policy Makers and Customers/poor people – to make promises.

[c] Interactive Marketing or Real–time Marketing between Providers and Customers – to keep promises made. There must be perfect alignment in the three different type of Marketing.

EDUCATION in Africa has a history reaching back many centuries. Certainly the achievements of the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Ethiopia are well known. Then, early in the first millennium of the Common Era, the Moors and other peoples on the northern fringe of Africa made notable contributions to world education and culture. And during the past 1,000 years the Saharan and sub-Saharan peoples had several centers of learning—Timbuktu, Agadez, Gao, Katsina and Borno, where books written in Arabic were in great demand.

More than 800 years ago at Timbuktu, in Mali, colleges provided advanced education. Katsina, in northern Nigeria, has been a center of learning since before the sixteenth century. It was there that, about 200 years ago, Muhammed ibn Muhammed became noted as a specialist in numerology.

The aforementioned cities were dominated by Moslem culture, and mosques were the centers of learning. However, the cost of learning under the tutorship of the mallams was very high and so few persons could afford it. The educated minority exercised tremendous influence, and were the key administrators, lawyers and clerks. But the majority remained illiterate.

In the non-Moslem, sub-Saharan cultures, education was largely nonliterate, by oral instruction rather than by use of reading material. Educational systems varied from tribe to tribe, and there were different degrees and levels of training, depending on the social and cultural development of a particular tribe. The training covered a fairly wide range, with specialized instruction at different age levels. Each educational system had specific forms of preparation for the roles of individuals in society. A look at the system of education among the Yorubas in precolonial Nigeria illustrates this.

The Yoruba System

Among the Yorubas, training in obedience, etiquette, speech and counting came early in the child’s life and was given within the family circle. Children quickly learned to express themselves in their language. Progressively, they mastered the proverbs, poetry and folklore of the community or tribe. In this way they learned the history and the moral and philosophical attitudes of their people. They had to learn a variety of greetings, recognition of levels of social seniority and the proper etiquette in connection with these. Religious education included training in rituals, sacred festivals and the roles of diviners.

At an early age, children were taught to count up to 20 on their fingers and toes and to do simple addition and subtraction with the aid of stones. As they progressed in knowledge, they were taught weights and measures, the use of cowrie shells (which served as money) and the art of bargaining.

Specialized training for boys focused on farming, working in metals and wood, hunting and the use of herbs and drugs in medicine. Skills were passed on from father to son. Inclination and natural abilities also were considered, and children were encouraged to develop their aptitudes. Therefore, many were apprenticed to artisans outside the family clan.

Girls received training in weaving and dyeing cloth. They learned to make pottery, to plait mats and baskets and to produce cosmetics for use in beauty treatments and hairdressing. They were taught the art of cooking, of brewing beer and of extracting oil from the kernels of the palm nuts. Thus they were prepared for their role as women in the family and the community.

The tribes that had a rural, pastoral or bush culture concentrated more on farming, herding and hunting or fishing. Some educational systems restricted progress into new fields of knowledge by preserving a closed society. Membership usually was restricted to those of certain ethnic origins or religious beliefs. This circumstance contributed toward a stagnation of knowledge. Nevertheless, the education that was provided amply served the needs of those societies.

The Colonial Era

In the wake of the missionary explorer David Livingstone, European missionaries began to increase their activities in Africa in the second half of the nineteenth century. Mission schools started to be set up in towns and villages, and right out in the bush, where students attended in simple loincloths or were completely naked.

These schools were set up on sectarian lines, with Catholics having their own schools and the Protestant religions theirs. This tended to segment the people religiously, and whole areas came to be regarded as the province of a particular religion. Divisions in social levels developed between the literate and the nonliterate segments of each community, and there was a gradual undermining of family influence. Other imbalances were created because traditional patterns of education were being uprooted and were not replaced by any uniform standard.

Still, a start had been made toward widening the horizons of knowledge in Africa. As more people learned to read and write, the knowledge of the world, contained in books, became available even to the remotest tribes. The literate history of non-Moslem, sub-Saharan Africa began to be revived.

Although the people showed aptitude in learning, there were obstacles to overcome. The missionaries usually had to learn the local languages first. Then they had to teach the children in their own European languages, in which books were available. Some did good work in formulating alphabet systems and compiling dictionaries so that many of the local languages could be put into writing. This provided the basis for translating the Bible into many African languages.

In some areas an obstacle was posed by the custom of barring girls from institutional education. When, over 40 years ago, one of the emirs from northern Nigeria visited England, he was impressed at seeing a large girls’ school. He desired a similar provision for the girls of his people. Since the custom was to keep women away from public life, he realized that this would be opposed. So he told his council that he was opening a school in his palace for educating the girls in his household. Within a year the school had 30 pupils, and many of the leading citizens were petitioning the emir to allow their children to attend. A year later, on the pretext that he could no longer tolerate the noise of a school in his palace, he “turned the pupils, teachers, and equipment out into the open town and lodged them in a house adjoining the boys’ school. ” (African Challenge, p. 63) Now every primary school in that section of the country is coeducational.

Since children were part of the labor force in each farm family, there was reluctance to lose them to the schools. Gradually, however, as the people recognized the value of the printed page and the advantages of reading and writing, more children were sent to school. So it was in mission schools that many of the outstanding educators and leaders throughout Africa got their early training.

The colonial governments, and the later sovereign governments of each independent state, encouraged the establishment of mission schools, giving financial and administrative help. Provisions were made for more uniform systems of schooling, and additional public and secondary schools and universities were established.

New Education Policies

Since 1970, in a further effort to ensure a more uniform standard of education, the Nigerian government has taken over control of private schools, including mission schools. This has given rise to the problem of adequate moral education in a totally secular school system. Therefore, the authorities have encouraged parents and teachers to provide moral guidance. Efforts have also been made to coordinate the Moslem and indigenous traditional systems of education with modern methods. It is hoped that this will stem the growing tide of unrest, immorality and drug abuse among youths.

In 1976 the Universal Primary Education scheme (UPE) was introduced to provide for free universal education throughout Nigeria. This will give children the opportunity to receive free primary schooling for six years, as well as junior secondary and senior secondary schooling for three years respectively. More schools are, therefore, being provided, and immediate plans are afoot to increase the number of universities to 13.

Adult Education

Because the majority of the adult population is illiterate, the various governments are giving increased attention to adult education. In Nigeria, where the literacy rate is 20 percent for a population of 70 million, the government has established adult education centers in most villages and towns. Many men and women are availing themselves of this opportunity to learn to read and write.

Much progress also is being made in adult literacy programs operating in Kingdom Halls of Jehovah’s Witnesses. By means of such classes, between 1962 and 1976, in Nigeria alone, 15,156 persons have been taught to read and write. Many of these were elderly and thought that they no longer had the ability to learn. They were mostly people from rural areas—farmers, hunters, fishermen, housewives. Their determination to obtain Bible knowledge and to be able to impart Scriptural instruction reawakened their desire to learn. Now they can read and write, and can help in teaching God’s Word to others in their own language and also often in English.

For example, Ezekiel Ovbiagele was trained according to the traditional system of education, but was not taught to read and write. After he received oral Biblical instruction from Jehovah’s Witnesses and was baptized in 1940, he saw the value of learning to read. He enrolled in one of the literacy classes and soon was reading the Bible to others. With further specialized training, he was qualified in 1953 to serve as a traveling overseer, having the responsibility to instruct many congregations in the territory assigned to him. Many others have made similar advancement.

When Jackson Iheanacho first attended meetings of Jehovah’s Witnesses, he was literate only in Efik, his native language. He saw the need to learn to read in English, too, since the meetings were conducted in that tongue. With the aid of the congregation’s literacy class, he achieved this and went on to learn other languages as well. He is now able to read and write seven languages!

The literacy rate among Jehovah’s Witnesses is better than 77 percent. Most of the remaining 23 percent are attending literacy classes, either at their Kingdom Halls or at government centers, and so are in various stages of learning to read and write. They appreciate this program, which is reaching out to more and more people.

Purposeful Education

The value and necessity of education cannot be denied. An editorial in the Daily Times of December 29, 1976, spoke of education as “the greatest investment .  .  . for the quick development of .  .  . economic, political, sociological and human resources. ” However, not just education, but purposeful education is essential. Modern methods have tended to establish materialistic goals, rather than productive ones. To many youths, the purpose of schooling is to obtain a certificate that will guarantee a prestige job and great financial reward. Parents should guide youths in carefully evaluating the purpose of their schooling. The goal should be to acquire real skills and thinking ability so as to ensure productivity in their adult careers.

It should be remembered, however, that the period of formal schooling is not all there is to the process of education. Parents can make use of preschool and out-of-school periods to instruct their children morally and in other ways that will build their personalities along wholesome lines. Much good can be achieved by using the Bible in inculcating decency, honesty and loyalty in the children.

INTRODUCTION:

Some European scholars have doubted the authenticity of African traditional education. They assert that before the coming of the Europeans to Africa there was no education in Africa, the culture which is the main tenet of African Traditional Education is often portrayed as primitive and incapable of yielding a tangible framework of theories and philosophy that can guide a reasonable educational practice.

There is a calculated move by modern education that threatens to cause a virtual extinction of the indigenous education in Africa. This threat is of great magnitude, especially when our own youth are persuaded to see no value in African culture and education. As early as 1970’s, a survey study among Kenyan and Tanzanian secondary students revealed that only a small percentage attached value to African education and culture. They absolutely see no need in preserving traditions and customs. (Prewitt, K, 1977).

These findings suggest that many people are still myopic about the characteristics and impact of African traditional education on modern civilization. It may not even be considered as a reliable means for tangible progress and development in Africa and other continents. It is no wonder, every technological and medicinal discoveries in Africa arouses much international debate and final dismissal if not patented by the westerners.

In the voice of Gabriel Kingsley Osei, a distinguished professor of History this state of affairs has to change. The dark ages which relegated the African education and civilization into ignorance and superstition must now receive more light on the authenticity of African traditional education. It must be illuminated enough for people to recognize indigenous African education as one of the most effective and potential means of solving African problems. (Osei, 1968).

It is the intent of the is paper to reveal  the characteristics of African traditional education that makes it an authentic educational system and show how it has impacted on world civilization and education, and its potential contribution to development of Africa and the rest of the world. Logical presentation and revelations in this paper should convince the reader of the need to foster the resurgence and adaptation of all that is valid for the 21st century in our indigenous African education. The following questions will be addressed in this paper.

What is the meaning of African traditional education?
What were the aims of African traditional education?
What were the main characteristics of African traditional education?
What was the content of African traditional education?
What were the methodologies used in African traditional education?
Who were the main agents in the African traditional education and how was it organized?
What were the major philosophies guiding the African traditional education?
What is the impact of African traditional education on modern education and civilization?

The Meaning of African Traditional Education:

What is the meaning of African traditional education?

African traditional education refers to ways of teaching and learning in Africa which are based on indigenous knowledge accumulated by Africans over long periods of time in response to their different physical, agricultural, ecological, political and socio-cultural challenges. The indigenous knowledge is an amalgamation of diverse cultural experiences commonly generated by diverse African cultures, and passed as valuable information from generation to generation. (Shiundu, J. S, Omulando, S. J 1992; Fasokun, J. et al, 2005).

The Aims of African Traditional Education

What were the aims of African traditional education?

The general aim of African traditional education was based on the socio-cultural and economic features shared by the various communities. The harsh natural environment made survival to be the main aim of education. Every skill, knowledge or attitude learnt was either for protection, acquiring of food or shelter. (Sifuna, 1994, Datta, 1984).

Other aims were as follows:

§       To create unity and consensus among society members.

§       To perpetuate the cultural heritage of particular ethnic group and to preserve ethnic boundaries.

§       To inculcate feelings of group supremacy and communal living.

§       To prepare the young for adult roles and status.

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