Introduction:

              Due to the decline in the quality of public education in Texas, state lawmakers passed legislation in 1995. The new law permitted the opening and implementation of charter schools. These new charters schools encourage and support innovative teaching for a variety of learning styles, improve the achievement of students, and provide options within the public school system (Terry and Alexander 2008, 4). Prior to the new legislation, there was no opportunity for choice within the public school system with regard to a child’s education, and children attended school according to their zip code. That deficiency began to change when the first charter school in Texas opened in the fall of 1996.

The Texas Education Agency (TEA) reports that the “first generation” of charters consisted of 17 schools and had a collective population of 2,412 students. Legislation initially limited open-enrollment charters to 20 schools; however, lawmakers increased the cap to 100 schools in 1997 and to 215 schools in 2001 (Story 2007, 1). As of 2007, Texas had one of the largest and most flexible charter school programs in the United States (Story 2007, 1). Currently, Texas charter schools serve over 113,000 students, an estimated two percent of all public school students.   Moreover, of those 113,000 students in charter schools, 80 percent are minority and 60 percent are economically disadvantaged students (Terry and Alexander 2008, 7).

Research Analysis-Lifting the Cap:

 The State of Texas currently has 210 active open-enrollment charter schools.   In addition, Texas will likely reach the cap of 215 open-enrollment charter schools by 2009. If the cap remains in place, many parents and children will be at a disadvantage, unable to choose the best quality education for their families. Many charter education supporters have and will continue to push for greater parental control and increased accountability with an emphasis on improved public relations. However, these supporters encounter a lot of resistance, because opponents see charter schools as competition to the public schools.  Consequently, increased restrictions and mandates stifle charter school growth.

 If the Texas government and the education policy stakeholders review the statistical findings and evaluate the impact of open-enrollment charter schools in Texas, they will find a clear picture of the positive outcomes charter schools provide. It becomes apparent through the examination of the economic and social factors of open-enrollment charter schools that lifting the cap on the number of open-enrollment charter schools in Texas would be beneficial to the current public school system.  

            Contrary to common public perception, charter schools are public schools.   Similar to public schools, charter schools cannot charge tuition according to state law. However, “charter schools have a significant amount of autonomy and are free to be innovative in educational and administrative practices,” as stated on the Resource Center for Charter Schools (Technology Help for Administrators 2008).   Before a charter school in Texas breaks ground, the entity must submit a proposal, similar to a business proposal, for approval, which typically includes a mission statement, a philosophy and a vision. Furthermore, the proposal provides information regarding basic logistics, including class size, number of school days and hours, the programs that will service students and a projected budget. On many occasions, charter schools seek the help of outside agencies to provide guidance, classroom modeling, in-house training, and resources in order to assist in achieving the mission. For example, an open-enrollment charter school in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania used a research based program / agency from San Francisco, California called the “Developmental Studies Center” (DSC). The DSC trained the faculty, provided resources and provided ongoing support in order to achieve the school’s mission and goal. In fact, the school bases its philosophy on a democratic model that gives students a voice, which promotes and fosters the students’ academic, social, and emotional growth. Significantly, this school recognizes the existence of multiple intelligences and diverse learning styles. One program that addresses the choice of students and multiple intelligences is the choice of electives for all of the student population once a week. They also incorporate a “service learning program” to assist in molding stewards of the community (Service Learning Programs, 2008).

Similarly, in Houston, Texas, “KIPP (Knowledge is Power Program) Academy Houston,” whose mission is to “help. . . students develop academic skills, intellectual habits, and qualities of character necessary to succeed in high school, college, and the competitive world beyond” is a very successful charter school that services grades 5-8 (U. S. Department of Education 2008).   Texas recognized it as an “exemplary school” every year since 1996, and the U. S. Department of Education recognized it as a “Blue Ribbon” school. The dedication of its teachers and administrators, including being on call by way of cell phone 24/7 to address the academic needs of students led to this success of the charter school (U. S. Department of Education 2008).   This innovative dedication would not be something conducive to the public school sector.   In view of the fact that employees of mainstream public schools, are subject to collective bargaining and union contracts, have set hours and specific responsibilities in their contracts and do not deviate from them.

By employing the flexibility of the charter program and by working outside the traditional eight hours of instructional time for students, the American Youth Works in Austin, Texas is a charter school that is able to better focus on the unique needs of its students. The school allows students half a day to pursue employment opportunities, to participate in work study programs or to take care of family members, including the students’ own children. The school requires the students to fulfill only four hours of traditional instructional time in order to accommodate the individual’s life experience (Terry and Alexander 2008, 4).

Other charter schools may extend the school day in order to improve academic achievement or may extend the school year to expose the students to supplemental material and expanded learning. Equally important, a mission aimed at addressing the varied learning styles through the theory of multiple intelligences may be the goal of another charter school. There are even charter schools that focus on the arts, architecture and design, leadership, and literacy. Charter schools generally do not fit the traditional model of the mainstream public school; instead, they find ways to educate children and stimulate learning based on innovative ideas and strategies.

When a charter is operating, the entity will receive direct funding from the state and the federal government. However, charters do not receive funding for their facilities, so it is up to the charter school to raise money, solicit donations, apply for startup grants from the federal government or choose to borrow from private lenders (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5).

Terry states, in a “GO San Angelo” article, that charter schools may not charge tuition, teach religion, discriminate, or cherry-pick students (Terry 2008, 1). To elaborate, if a charter school encourages families to volunteer 20 hours of their time to help with various needs of the school such as painting, helping in the classroom, making packets, cleaning, etc. , the school cannot in any way enforce this as a “requirement. ” If a family is penalized in any way, such as a student being removed from school for incompletion of hours, it would be considered payment for education. Moreover, charter schools may not discriminate in the enrollment of students or cherry-pick, select a student based on academic performance, behavior, or other preferential selection, its admissions. .

Charter schools require different regulations compared to traditional public schools (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5). An example is that charter schools, as opposed to mainstream public schools, require teachers to provide parents and guardians of students in their school with a written notice of their qualifications. Another example of the differences in regulation is under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Federal Regulation Part 300, which reauthorizes the Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act (IDEIA). Originally, law required charter schools to provide and complete academic testing for a child within 60 school days from the date of a request from a parent or guardian, while it required traditional public schools to provide and complete the same within 60 calendar days.   Under the reauthorization, the requirement changed to 60 school days for both public and charter schools. Before this became universal for both mainstream public and charter schools, it was a disadvantage for the charter schools to adhere to the time restraint because it was more difficult in terms of the high cost of academic testing and limited funding.

To be sure, accountability is universal for district public schools and charter schools, as the pressure of No Child Left Behind impacts both sectors of education. Both are required to administer standardized tests, and all students must test at their current grade level rather than their level of ability. For instance, an eighth grader who is reading at a third grade level must take the eighth grade reading standardized test.

According to the article “Texas Charter Schools: An Assessment in 2005″, produced by the Texas Public Policy Foundation, “when student performance is evaluated on the basis of test scores, students in Texas charter schools perform on the average lower than do students in traditional public schools. However, when changes in test scores are used to judge performance, academic gains by charter school students can be demonstrated” (Patterson 2005, 5). This means that even though some charter school students’ performance does not exceed the performance of traditional public schools according to standardized test results, the students are individually making better academic progress in the charter schools. In addition, because most charter schools typically specialize in helping disadvantaged youth, many students in charter schools identify as an at-risk population for dropping out of school and come from low income homes which could hinder their test performance (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5). Accordingly, basing decisions of success on standardized test scores is an unfair assessment of charter school performance.

Currently, the government enforces some regulation on charter schools that forces them to shut down if they have two consecutive years of undesirable performance, which typically measures by standardized test scores. This is harsher and inequitable compared to the five years allowed for the mainstream public school districts (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5). For example, a charter school may be able to improve a fifth grade student whose reading level is equivalent to third grade but still fail with unacceptable performance because the student failed the fifth grade Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) test reading section (Terry and Alexander 2008, 1).

During the 2007-2008 school years, 113,760 students enrolled in charter schools in Texas, and an estimated 16,810 students were on a waiting list (Terry and Alexander 2008, 4). Houston’s regional charter school’s waiting list was the largest at 7,415 students; coming in second was the Dallas / Fort Worth region at 5,896 students, and Rio Grand Valley had 2,110 students.   Furthermore, the Austin region had a waiting list of 623; the Corpus Christi region had a waiting list of 159; and the San Antonio region had a waiting list of 488 students (Terry and Alexander 2008, 4). According to Robelen, since these numbers stem from a survey in which only half of the schools participated, the actual number of students on a waiting list for charter schools in Texas is likely higher (Robelen 2008, 1).

The large number of students on the waiting lists for charter school enrollment demonstrates the significant demand for educational options, which is the fundamental purpose of the legislation for charter schools. The rapidly growing number of students on waiting lists demonstrates the need for lawmakers to lift the cap limiting the number of charter schools in Texas.   When a charter school has more applicants than they can allow, an enrollment lottery determines which students will be attending the upcoming school year.   Terry asks readers to “imagine parents, whose child is trapped in a low-performing public school, crying for joy that their child is randomly selected to attend a school with a track record of serving at-risk students with innovative strategies” (Terry 2008, 1). On the other hand, one can imagine the cries of a parent whose child is a student in a low-performing public school when their child looses the enrollment lottery.  

There are four different types of charter schools: open-enrollment charters, district charters, university charters, and home-rule district charters. Open-enrollment charter schools service the largest population, 89,156 students as of the 2007-2008 school year. Open-enrollment charters are by definition independent school units and can have multiple campuses. The school district operates the district charter schools that consisted of 23,275 students in the 2007-2008 school years. University charters are generally in operation at public senior university or college and consisted of 1,329 students attending 19 different university charter schools in 2007-2008. Furthermore, a home-rule charter means districts have the ability to convert into charter school status which includes an extensive voting process. There is no cap on the number of district charters; however, there are no home-rule charter schools operating in Texas (Terry and Alexander 2008, 3).

Open enrollment charter schools do not drain financial resources from mainstream public schools because they do not receive state funding. In fact, the excess money in the state education budget applies to the student’s home district and the neighboring school where the child resides. For example, in the 2005-2006 school year, the cost per student in Texas was $9,629; charter schools were given approximately $1,500 less per student (Terry and Alexander, 2008a, 1). Thus, operating a charter school saves the district money in educating a child because charter schools expend less money per child.

Because charter schools receive less money per student compared to mainstream school districts in Texas, it is necessary for charter schools to incorporate fund raising into their fiscal plans. Moreover, charter school fundraising brings more dollars into the public sector.   According to the National Alliance for Public Charter Schools, in Illinois the total of public and private funding for charter schools brought in a total of $11 million dollars to help educate the youth. In addition, charter schools introduce new resources into public education. Grants provide funds designed for charter schools phases such as, planning, development, and initial implementation which are not available to the public school system if charter schools were not in existence (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008).

It is incorrect for the districts in Texas to believe that charter schools negatively impact their bottom line or hinder their budgetary plan. In the event of the opening of a new charter school, the state provides the district with short term financial aids in order to prevent an impact on the school district revenue (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008). Because charter schools typically enroll a diverse student body with a variety of characteristics, the fiscal impact is a factor of enrollment only (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008). In addition, public and charter schools receive a percentage of money for students with disabilities; therefore, the public district receives an even higher amount than the $1,500 per special education student.   Finally, socioeconomic factors dictate funding for individual students and services offered (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008).

Districts can easily reduce expenses to adapt to charter schools. The National Alliance for Charter Schools, reports that school districts can often adjust to student enrollment fluctuations-where there may be some key adjustments the first year, the following years have little to no impact on the school district (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008).    The National Alliance for Charter Schools also believes that if a charter school is thriving, and the district cannot adjust to the fluctuation in enrollment, it is likely due to the district’s own failed policies and rules (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008).

Charter schools in Texas increase the employment of teachers in the district as well. Many teachers struggle to obtain a teaching position once they graduate and charter schools open the doors for many of these qualified teachers to find a job in education. The state law only requires teachers to be state certified to work in a charter school if they specialize in special education or bilingual education (Terry and Alexander 2008a, 6). The state government in Texas does not require charter schools to employ certified teachers, but many choose to do so, especially with the shortage of teaching opportunities. Story supports this by stating statistics that show charter schools employ 26 percent of new teachers in the field compared to traditional public schools, which employ a mere 7 percent respectively (Story 2007, 3). In addition, charter schools can impact the traditional school district in a positive way by reducing the need for districts to hire new teachers by eliminating overcrowding, which reduces the average cost of hiring and training a new teacher, estimated to be about $8,000 per teacher (The National Alliance for Charter Schools 2008).  

The impact of charter schools in the community’s economic and social growth is rapidly increasing. As stated earlier, charter schools do not receive funding for facilities from the state, however the districts that have charters schools receive and excess of approximately $1,500 per student that attends a charter school.  Therefore, without the funding for a facility, charter schools renovate, remodel and/or rehabilitate existing property within a community in order to accommodate students. Having a charter school residing in a neighborhood has the potential to generate tax revenue and increase the value of real estate (National Alliance for Public Charter Schools 2008).

The National Alliance for Public Charter Schools also suggests that if charter schools are successful in educating students, it can reduce the dropout rate in high schools and increase college admissions and graduates. Texas seems to have a high dropout rate, and those students who graduate do not have the communication and math skills necessary for college and require remedial math and reading programs to qualify for admission to college (Terry and Alexander 2008, 4). One of the most successful schools in Texas is a charter school that reduced their dropout rates dramatically under the direction of the mission of their charter.

 These charter schools often provide a safe haven for youth by providing aftercare and tutoring. Importantly, charter schools often give communities a sense of pride. Many charter schools offer Boy Scouts of America, sports, and other programs in order to facilitate teambuilding, self esteem, and help foster a sense of community, and growth in a child. Some charter schools open their doors for tutoring and mentoring on Saturdays to offer extra assistance as well as a safe setting for young learners. However, these programs are uncommon in the traditional public school district setting mostly because of the contract and collective bargaining processes of the districts. Charter schools have the ability to add the extra touches that impact students without the political constraints that traditional district schools face.

            While charter schools do not seem like they would pose a significant threat to the financial operations of the public school system in Texas, there are some risks associated with the existence of charter schools. Because most charter schools operate like a business, there is a risk of misappropriation and improper allocation of funds. In addition, misconduct of administrators, teachers, and entities involved with a particular charter school could lead to a negative reputation of charter schools as a whole. However, limiting the number of charter schools based on isolated incidents of illegal activity, inappropriate behavior or misuse of power could prove to be harmful to the education system. Misconduct can develop in any entity, including public school districts.

            Research shows that students from a traditional public school who attend charter schools for a period of two or three years improve more rapidly than students in the traditional public school district (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5). Not using a growth based system to measure the amount of growth, a student is able to obtain in the course of a year in the state accountability system is causing charter school to seem deficient (Terry and Alexander 2008, 5). Research from the “Texas Charter Schools: An Assessment in 2005″ produced by the Texas Public Policy Foundation, shows that students who left traditional public schools to attend charter schools performed better on average than they would have if they were still attending the traditional public school (Patterson 2004, 32). Thus, the correlation of charter schools and student achievement is significant, and students will benefit from the removal of the charter school cap in Texas.

            Charter schools provide competition with the mainstream district schools which provides an unwanted positive impact on the district schools. It forces district schools to exhibit more accountability of staff and teachers and puts pressure on them to increase student performance. If the schools are functioning at low levels, parents or guardians will feel the need to remove their child from the district school by applying to a charter school. If lawmakers remove the cap and more options are available to parents and guardians, more choices for education will be accessible to students and parents. In addition, the competition between charter schools and public schools will cause school districts to increase their overall academic performance.

            Patterson asserts the bottom line for charter schools in Texas as follows:

Charter schools are a valuable alternative to traditional public schools (Patterson 2005, 1).

Charters are especially effective with disadvantaged students (Patterson 2005, 1).

Charters challenge traditional public schools to improve student performance (Patterson 2005, 1).

 Charters do a better job with high school students and alternative education programs (Patterson 2005, 1).

 

Conclusion:

The benefits a charter school can provide to the district public schools, parents, students, and the community significantly outweighs any negative impact charters may cause. The Texas legislature should eliminate the cap of 215 charter schools which prevents charter schools to operate in a free market (Terry and Alexander, 2008, 1). The 16,810 or more students on the waiting lists for charter schools prove the demand for charter schools. This demand, viewed in light of the current issues facing traditional public schools, proves that charter schools are working well in improving the quality of education. Many education analysts believe that the quality of a charter school education will increase overtime. Unless this demand meets the supply, tens of thousands of students will remain in an environment that may not promote academic, emotional or social growth. Equally important, these students will not thrive in their current placement and could regress to the extent of becoming an at-risk youth who could potentially drop out of high school, leading to a grim future. This proposed reform of lifting the cap could be an immense opportunity for Texas to become a leader in the charter school movement. The Texas public school system could stop the increase of real estate taxes to invest money in failing districts and make the choice to provide additional educational resources for the children of the state.

            The bureaucracy that places a barrier to student learning and student performance is unconscionable. A simple solution to the education crisis Texas is facing would be to lift the cap while continuing to monitor all educational institutions. It is in the best interests of the child to allow parents and guardians to make the choice of where their child should attend school to get the best free, appropriate public education possible. The main purpose of the charter school legislation in 1995 was to give that choice to Texas citizens. That freedom no longer exists for thousands of citizens in Texas because of the cap on charter schools. Given the overwhelming evidence that charter schools are socioeconomically beneficial, lawmakers in Texas should increase or remove the cap altogether and make charter schools available to all of its citizens in 2009.

 

 

Medieval education is about education that was conducted in the medieval period. Medieval education is seen as quite an unusual form of education. However, by the 15th century, there were options for a student to be educated further. Some schools even housed both genders, but this was during the day only. Children were taught their basics, such as how to read and write. This is because these were the basic requirements if they wanted to be accepted under apprenticeship in any guild.
Medieval education also consisted of peasant children going to school. However, they made up a very small number. They were taught how to read and write, and also studied basic math. This education for peasants was usually conducted at a monastery.
As part of medieval education, noble girls and even boys were sent to learn at nunneries. There, they would receive their basic education. The nuns taught these students how to read and write too. They would also teach them how to pray. Girls were additionally taught how to spin and do needlework amid other domestic skills. http://www. 360career. com  These were inculcated in order to prepare them for later life, as these were basic skills required when a woman got married.
If a child took his or her education seriously at a monastery, he or she would have a monastic life. However, this was quite rare for an average townsman or peasant. Also, these individuals would be carefully selected for these ranks. If they were deemed suitable according to their demeanour, they would be brought up by the monks.
Today, medieval education practices are still visible. The same monastery education students are given is a clear reflection of it. The education that children receive at missionary schools in various parts of the world also reflects similar forms of education. A major difference that is seen is the widespread existence of books. In medieval times, there were many schools that operated without the use of books. Students were taught by skilled masters, and were often educated for dubious benefits. The rich or others that did provide education in medieval times did so for their personal gain. There were very few that really wanted to educate people in the true spirit of enlightening more minds.

As time has passed by, some aspects of medieval education have faded while others have remained. It can be argued that the aspects of medieval education that were useful for the purpose of education have remained. Regardless of some characteristics remaining, the overall process has changed a great deal. This is because education could not have the same face as it did hundreds of years ago. Today’s education is different from medieval education in so many ways. For example, you have the inclusion of group work and activity based learning. You also have the inclusion of computers for education in this modern age. No one in the medieval period would have ever contemplated the use of such items.

Another important development to mention, and one that is used almost throughout the world is the Montessori method. This is something that did not exist in the medieval period, and it took many years for it to be popularized since Maria Montessori first used it. Indeed, the Montessori Method cannot be likened to any medieval method of education. It was developed independently as an innovative teaching method. In addition to the Montessori Method, there are other teaching areas today that have been developed without any medieval education influence.

Though medieval education has provided the fundamentals for formal education, some people prefer to deny medieval education methods the credit it is given. They believe that the formal method of students being seated in classrooms would have developed later anyway, whether medieval education used this arrangement or not. This does make sense because it is unthinkable for any other arrangement to be used. It is further argued that it is more likely that this would have been the case in modern education because student interaction is encouraged. For better student interaction, a classroom of a suitable number of students would have been recommended. Regardless of these arguments, we still find many traces of medieval education in our modern setups today.

For more about Medieval Education visit:  http://www. 360career. com/content/Medieval-Education. asp

Normal writing checking software can’t match the quality of a manual proof read? Wrong. Punctuation writing software can now instantly simplify all of your writing tasks. punctuation writing software can make your life easier in many ways. punctuation writing software can now instantly simplify all of your writing tasks. Punctuation writing software uses a technology called NLP (Natural Language Processing), which reads your whole sentences in context, unlike an ordinary spell checker, which only words single words. Reading in context is important, because without context a spell checker can’t tell if you mean “their” or “there,” as both are words in English.

punctuation writing software is the patent-pending solution which automatically works with all text based tools, easily correcting all grammatical, spelling, punctuation or any other writing errors.

Use it for: Essay Writing, Medical writing, Article Writing, Creative Writing, Email, Instant Messaging, Business Writing, Letter Writing, Social Media, Blogging, Legal writing and much, much more.

For people who must write a great deal, whether for school or work, punctuation writing software can help to teach you to naturally improve your writing. It’s like having a virtual writing teacher built into your computer. English is actually not one of the easiest languages in the world, even for native speakers. Here are five ways it may be able to help you.

1. If you are in business and must send out correspondences, emails, reports and other information, you want your writing to be clear, correct and professional. This will enable people to better understand your communications. It will also improve your image as someone who writes well and clearly.

2. Punctuation writing software can help increase your creativity as a writer, as in addition to correcting mistakes, it also acts as a thesaurus and suggests different words, such as descriptive adverbs and adjectives. This makes your writing more interesting and versatile.

3. If English is not your first language but you have a need to communicate clearly in this language, this is the perfect solution for you. You can write down the basic ideas of what you need to say, while the software will read and correct your mistakes and suggest alternatives.

4. If you spend time rewriting or editing your reports or other correspondences, punctuation writing software can save you a lot of time by automating these tedious tasks.

5. When you make mistakes in your writing and people notice it, it can have a negative effect in the way they think of you. If you are in business, trying to sell something, attempting to persuade someone of something, or even if you are just writing social emails, isn’t it better to be seen as someone who is well educated and can write well.

When you write letters or emails, you can do so faster and with more confidence, as punctuation writing software will correct your mistakes and suggest better word usage, much like a thesaurus. If you have to do much writing, for any reason at all, punctuation writing software can help you to communicate faster and more effectively.

English is the commonest spoken language of the world, it is used in any communication field and for work, and to be able to speak this language fluently is an important communication tool that nobody shouldn’t miss. Many international students chose England as a favourite location for their learning holidays but many of them are afraid about typical quick times and frenetic way of life of British big cities. May be not everybody know yet, that there is a place where the study of English language is a relaxing and formative experience more than a simply educational one. Cheltenham is a picturesque town in South West of England, located in the county of Gloucestershire. Thermal resort and for this same reason town of wellness and natural beauties, Cheltenham’s by-name is “Hearth of England” and it is the favourite destination for students coming from all around the world who chose to spend their learning holidays there. It is a beautiful and tidy town under so many poits of view, education is one of the main pilaster on which Cheltenham society is based and it is following this kind of organization that all the English language schools for foreigners are currently operating there.   The main features of English language schools in Cheltenham are quality of educational material and methods and teachers’ qualified skills, associated with careful attention towards students’ personal way of learning and needs. If you wish to study English in Cheltenham, you will have the chance of attending language courses created to make you gain a good language knowledge level. Obvioulsy, courses are different for duration and content and you can find many schools offering language courses such as Language Skills Programme 30, an intensive course whose aim is language skills development, or Language Skills Programme 20, created to make students follow language courses during the morning and dedicate their afternoon time to independent study or to discover of English culture. More courses are offered by English language schools for foreigners in Cheltenham, such as the so called Language Skills Programme 20:20, perfect for who is looking for a mix between individual learning and devlopment of social dynamics, essential for language learning.
So, Cheltenham is the perfect location for a study holiday where language, order and relax perfectly mix together with fun and a full-immersion on English culture.
To learn something more about programs of English language schools and English language courses for foreign students in Cheltenham, visit our site Learn Languages Abroad.

 

 

 

CHARTER SCHOOLS: PASSING OR FAILING?

 

 

 

 

Charter Schools: Passing or Failing
Patti Bonner

Strayer University, Summer 2008

 

Abstract

This study’s objective was to Research of a “choice” school that operates under a performance contract which details specifics as the school’s mission, program, goals, demographics of the students served, methods of assessment, and ways to assess success. Such educational arrangements are known as charter schools, which are publicly funded schools that have greater accountability for academic assessment and fiscal practices, while receiving more independence and experiencing fewer regulations than traditional public schools. Research shows that there is a fair amount of success with this type of contractual education, and that a fair amount of issues accompany the success, such as fluctuating changes in student performance that are immeasurable by test scores. Another issue with the contractual educational facilities that is heating up in recent months is the conflict that arises between this type of learning environment versus the traditional public school system. This paper examines differing authorities in an attempt to determine whether charter schools are achieving their intended missions, or falling short of their goals – the verdict of this author’s research is that the structure is conducive to innovative practices, although the overall end results demonstrated by charter schools does not measure up to their tangible and intangible costs.

 

Charter Schools: Passing or Failing

This study into the report card of charter schools in the United States will attempt to decide whether this mode of education is more or less successful in the quest of education.   The unique research covered in this study represents the most recent journal articles that are related to these public schools that are operated independently of the local school board. Charter schools being unique in that they differ in various degrees from the curriculum and educational philosophy of other schools in the same system, they can also take the form of experimental public schools for mainly primary, but some secondary, education.

Charter schools do not charge tuition and frequently have lottery based admissions. They, therefore, provide an alternative to public schools, oftentimes offering a curriculum that specializes in a certain field– e. g. arts, mathematics, etc. Others simply seek to provide a better and more efficient general education than nearby public schools.

Public school funding in the United States is not a product of intelligent design. Funding programs have grown willy-nilly based on political entrepreneurship, interest group pressure, and intergovernmental competition. Consequently, now that Americans feel the need to educate all children to high standards, no one knows for sure how money is used or how it might be used more effectively (Hill, 2008).

 

These institutions are also exclusive in that some are created and organized by teachers and or parents and or community leaders, in a totally autonomous school environment, while others are state-run charters that are unaffiliated with local school districts and founded by non-profits such as universities and government entities that may appear in clusters across a geographic area.

The term “charter” possibly originated in the 1970s when Ray Budde, a New England university professor, suggested that small groups of teachers be given contracts or “charters” by their local school boards to discover new approaches to education. Albert Shanker, former president of the American Federation of Teachers, then publicized the idea, suggesting that local boards could charter an entire school with union and teacher approval. One of the first charter schools was a well-known institution called the H-B Woodlawn Program, as a part of the educational movements that fueled such innovative education in the 1960s and 1970s, it was established to provide a more individualized and caring environment to students.

As they were originally envisioned, the ideal model of a charter school appeared as a legally and financially autonomous public school – void of tuition, religious affiliation, or discriminatory student admissions. Charter schools were also foreseen to operate much like a private business.   In the business sense of being free from many state laws and district regulations, the charter-school beginnings grew on the premise that they were more accountable for student outcomes rather than for processes or inputs that were believed to be enhanced through stipulations such as Carnegie Units and teacher certification requirements.

The charter school movement has roots in a number of other reform ideas, including:

alternative schools site-based management magnet schools public school choice privatization community-parental empowerment

 

In the late 1980s Philadelphia started a number of schools-within-schools and called them “charters. ” Some of them were schools of choice. The idea was further refined in Minnesota where charter schools were developed according to three basic values: opportunity, choice, and responsibility for results.

In 1991 Minnesota passed the first charter school law, with California following suit in 1992. By 1995, 19 states had signed laws allowing for the creation of charter schools, and by 2003 that number increased to 40 states, Puerto Rico, and the District of Columbia. From 1997 to 2006 the number of charters in the US grew from 693 to 3,977. Perhaps surprisingly, given this growth, previous work has found mixed evidence on the impacts of charter schools on student performance. However, these studies focus almost exclusively on test scores as the outcome of interest. Thus, one potential explanation for this discrepancy is that charter schools affect student performance in ways that cannot be measured by test scores.

The charter school data is gathered at least annually, collected by mostly independent groups, is largely captured by survey. The U. S. Charter Schools Organization is said to statistics that consist of information related to size, scope, demographics (Figure 1), operations, and management of public charter schools (Charter schools data, n. d. ).

It is because of conflicting and diverse initial findings that this research is important to the author’s personal curiosity. On one hand, the appeal of fresh, new approaches to teaching and learning is the stimulus for continued education. On the other hand, a constant vigil over money and test scores to prove the worth of the methodology defeats the main purpose of acting as vehicle for education. The analysis of a sampling of literature is expected to illuminate the more constant and logical explanation of the evidence examined.

Opportunity

In this paper new, longitudinal data from an anonymous large urban school district is used to assess how charter schools affect student discipline, attendance, and retention; these are compared to test score impacts. Using individual fixed-effects analyses shows that schools which begin as charters generate improvements in student behavior and attendance but not test scores. Charters that convert from regular public schools have mixed effects on test scores. While there is evidence of selection into charter schools based on changes in outcomes, these results change little after applying intermittent panel strategies. Finally, there is little evidence that charter schools generate long-term benefits if students return to non-charter schools.

A report prepared by the Center for Education Reform in 2006 states the opportunity posed by charter schools well by saying, “when the charter school concept was born in the days prior to the advent of The No Child Left Behind Act, the bargain was freedom in exchange for accountability” (CER, 2006). As an educational watchdog for learning and teaching communities, the CER felt that charter schools were a chance to try to provide a tailored education to some students through a more micro-managed, yet opportunistic, educational environment and respond to needs expressed by parents, students, and communities (including the teaching community).

According to the National Education Association (NEA), for-profit charter schools rarely outperform traditional public schools, even when the charter receives higher funding. Although the U. S. Department of Education’s findings agree with those of the NEA, their study points out the limitations of such studies and the inability to hold constant other important factors, and notes that “study design does not allow us to determine whether or not traditional public schools are more effective than charter schools” (NEA, 1998).

Choice

Counselor interviews, professional journals, litigation, and the most recent data and statistics on the subject of charter schools is evidence that is examined at the primary and secondary levels of education. Many of the inherent organizational challenges found therein, are to be analyzed for themes that are perpendicular and those that are parallel.   Earlier reviews on the topic has used the words perverse and “spectacle of fear” to describe charter schools in their failing and miserable attempts to reform the contemporary schools under the guise of the 2002 No Child Left Behind ideal (Granger, 2008). In only a few of the sources consulted in this study has this harsh language been used to describe the effects of charter schooling.   The majority of the literary sources have been supportive of the innovation that is placed in those type of schools.

It is the latter positive contributions consulted in this paper, which convinced the writer to theorize that charter schools are one of the fastest growing innovations in education policy because they have a tendency to invoke a positive learning outcome in their students. Broad bipartisan support from governors, state legislators, and past and present secretaries of education contribute to the solidarity of this concept and the general research opinion. In his 1997 State of the Union Address, former President Clinton called for the creation of 3,000 charter schools by the year 2002. In 2002, President Bush called for $200 million to support charter schools. His proposed budget called for another $100 million for a new Credit Enhancement for Charter Schools Facilities Program. Since 1994, the U. S. Department of Education has provided grants to support states’ charter school efforts, starting with $6 million in fiscal year 1995.

Another point of kudos for the charter school system that was evident through this research was the issue of the choice processes that charter students have at their disposal that public schools make available only on a limited and or unobservable basis. Substantiation of these alternatives and support that are more-readily made available to charter school students was noted in a report on the charter school counseling by Stanton-Salazar & Dornbusch (1995) and mentioned in a professional high school journal article entitled, “College Counseling in Charter High Schools: Examining the Opportunities and Challenges”. (Farmer-Hinton & McCullough, 2008). The schools’ staff generally promotes college as a normal and viable postsecondary choice that is communicated through the charter schools counselors’ open relationship with their students.

Responsibility for Results

The mere premise of a charter school is to exhibit results in many major areas. Through the research of this paper, it is evidenced that the charter schools are displaying a great deal of positive results with respect to the subject areas listed in most of their legal charters. The original thesis was that the cost of these results versus the benefit of their results was questionable. During this research, only one professional article was readily available to discuss this particular subject, although there are many legal causes, some are mentioned in this writing, that indicate that this is a huge concern with the public, as well.

There is an important consideration when drafting or revising the legislation for a charter school, however, that addresses “whether to include an appeals process for organizers whose initial proposals are rejected” (The Charter School Roadmap, 1998). Many of these are shown in a report (Table 1) that tracks the variables of applicants within established guidelines.

Many states have seen the concept of charter schools in their state supreme courts on mostly monetary issues, but a unique case of the governing authority over a charter school application for its charter was heard in Beaufort County Board of Education v. Lighthouse Charter School Committee, et al. (1999).   This case went a long way towards resolving many of the issues surrounding charter schools in the state of South Carolina. “The Court’s decision made it clear that a local school board has the authority, under the S. C. Charter Schools Act of 1996, to require a charter school applicant to comply with the Act’s provisions before a charter is approved and, once the local board makes a decision concerning a charter school applicant, the local board’s decision must be upheld by the State Department of Education if that decision is supported by substantial evidence on the record” (Duff, White & Turner, LLC, 1999).

Presidential mandates are indicative of the popularity of charter-school types with the constituents and the general public at large. “In the end, school improvement is accomplished through the hard work of school staff, with administrative and parent support” (NEA, 1998) – stated exactly as a common knowledge and belief to the author of this research.

The results of the literature consulted and cited in this paper have been found to emphasize the original theory that the overall benefits produced by charter schools are almost equal to, if they don’t exceed, the cost that is incurred. The fact that this paradigm exists is not believed to be intentional, but rather more of an undefined direction for charter schools and an existing incompetence at truly managing a budget.

Previous research, although truly controversial, was not found to reveal a huge imbalance of the overall end results as opposed to the cost of such at present.   Charter schools were found financially unaccountable, whereby their products outweigh the sum of their tangible and intangible costs, by only one professional review. The research of this independent review was even concluded with the following, “recent three initiatives – an R&D intermediary, using charters as the point of the lance, and creation of a level playing field for competition – could set off a wave of innovation and escalating school performance. This, in turn, could tell Americans what they need to spend for effective schools” (Hill, 2008).

This lack of professional review to the contrary is not believed to be a limitation, yet an indication that the concept of the charter schools is a sound one that is being refined into a more efficient and effective educational environment. Therefore, the conclusion of this research is found to be that the charter schools are passing on their score card – marginally, at present, but they are expected to become better stewards of their funds and expenses in the future, thus increasing their passing score.

 

References

Charter School Closures: An Opportunity for Accountability. (2006, February). Center for Education Reform.

Charter schools data. (n. d. ). USCharterSchools. org. Retrieved July 21, 2008, from http://www. uscharterschools. org

The Charter School Roadmap. (1998, September). Department of Education. Retrieved August 30, 2008, from http://www. ed. gov/pubs/Roadmap/index. html .

Duff, White & Turner, LLC. (1999). S. C. Supreme Court Decision On Charter Schools. FindLaw. Retrieved August 29, 2008, from http://library. findlaw. com/1999/Jul/1/126674. html .

Farmer-Hinton, R. , & McCullough, R. (2008, April). College Counseling in Charter High Schools: Examining the Opportunities and Challenges. High School Journal, 91(4), 77-90. Retrieved July 27, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database.

Granger, D. (2008, May). No Child Left Behind and the Spectacle of Failing Schools: The Mythology of Contemporary School Reform. Educational Studies, 43(3), 206-228. Retrieved July 27, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database.

Hill, P. (2008, April). Spending Money When It Is Not Clear What Works. PJE. Peabody Journal of Education, 83(2), 238-258. Retrieved July 27, 2008, from Academic Search Premier database.

Imberman, S. A. (2007).   Achievement and Behavior in Charter Schools: Drawing a More Complete Picture.

National Education Association (1998, July). “For-Profit Management of Public Schools”. CorpWatch.

 

Table 1

State-by-State Analysis of Charter School Laws

Appeals and Approval

 

State

# of Schools/Students

Application

Appeals & Approval

School Limit

Student Limit

Eligible Operators

Sponsors

Appeals

Alaska

30 (limits are defined geographically)

None

Anyone; law does not specify

Local school board; subject to state school board approval

None

Arizona

25 SEA per year 25 charter board per year; no limit on local board-sponsored schools

None

Public body, private person or private organization

Local school board, state board of education or state charter school board

May apply to other sponsor

Arkansas

None

None

Existing public school

State board with approval of local board

None; SEA may request hearing but cannot overturn a decision

California

250 charter schools for the 1998-99 school year with an additional 100 charter schools per school year thereafter

None

Existing public schools; new start-ups; no private or home-based schools allowed

Local school board, county board of education, state board of education

May apply to other sponsor

Colorado

None

None

Anyone; no private or home schools

Local school board

None

Connecticut

24 schools (distinction between local and state and number in congressional district removed in 1997)

No state school can enroll more than 250 students or 25% of the district enrollment, whichever is less

Anyone; no private or home schools

Local or state school board

None

Delaware

No statewide limit, but limited five schools per year for the first three years

None; must serve at least 200 students (waiver for at-risk)

Any person, university, college or nonreligious, nonhome-based, nonsectarian entity

LEA or SEA (local board only for conversions)

None

District of Columbia

For FY97, 10 schools per board, for total of 20 schools per year

None

Anyone; no home schools

D. C Board or Education; Public Charter School Board

None

Florida

Limits defined according to district student enrollment; district may request cap waiver from State Board of Education

None

Anyone; no private or home schools; private schools may disband and reincorporate as charter school

LEA, state universities developmental research schools in consultation with local board

Appeal to SEA; District makes final decision

Georgia

None

None

Local school, private organization, or state or local public entity. No private or home schools.

SEA with LEA approval.

The state board may still grant a charter if the local school board does not approve of the application.

Hawaii

25

None

Existing public school

SEA

None

 

Idaho

Not more that 60 schools in the first five years; not more that 12 schools per year; not more than 2 schools within an educational classification region; not more that 1 school per district in a year. If fewer than 12 applications, the unused allotments shall be assigned to a statewide pool for other requesting districts with distribution to be determined by random drawing.

None

Any person. No private or home school; for profits cannot operate charter schools.

Local School Board

Appeal to a hearing officer selected by the start superintendent of public instruction. if the decision is not reversed, an appeal to the state board of education with sponsorship of the school under the state board of education.

Illinois

45 with distribution based on population

None

Teachers, administrators, local school councils, colleges or universities, public community colleges, corporations or other entities; no private or home schools

LEA with SEA review for compliance with law

Appeal to state board; recommendation is nonbinding

Kansas

15

None

Anyone; no private or home schools

LEA with SEA review for adherence to state laws, rules and regulations

None

Louisiana

42 (no more than 20 prior to February 1, 1998)

None

Three or more certified teachers alone or partnership with 10 or more citizens, public service organization, business or corporation, college or university, or faculty and staff of any city or parish or any LEA; no private of home schools

LEA or SEA depending on type of charter

 

None

Massachusetts

50 (13 of which must be Horace Mann conversion schools)

No more that 25% of the total number of students attending public schools in the state

A business, two or more teachers, 10 or more parents or others; no private or home schools

State secretary of education (Horace Mann schools also must be approved by local district and local collective bargaining agent)

None

Michigan

None; state university can sponsor 150 through 1999

None

Any person or entity

Local school board, intermediate school board, community college or state public university

None

Minnesota

None

None

One or more licensed teachers; no home schools

LEA, community colleges, state university, technical and private colleges; SEA must approve all schools

If local board denies application, and at least two members vote to sponsor, state may choose to sponsor

Mississippi

Six (one in each congressional district)

None

Existing public schools

SEA with approval by LEA in district where the charter is located

None

Nevada

21 (allocated based on county population); unlimited number serving at-risk students

None

At least three licensed teachers alone or in partnership with: 10 or more members of general public, organization devoted to serving the general public, private business or college or university; no private or home schools

LEA after receiving permission from SEA to solicit applications; charter also must be approved by SEA

None

New Hampshire

Five prior to 1/1/97; 10 per year through 1999; law defines geographical limitations

School districts may impose limits

Nonprofit organizations, two or more certified teachers, 10 or more parents; no nonpublic or home schools

LEA with state then granting or denying proposed contract

SEA which may then approve and grant charter

New Jersey

135 (12. 95-12/97) Minimum of three schools allocated to each county

No more than 500 students or 25% of student body of school district, whichever is less

Teachers and/or parents of public school children; higher education institutions and/or private entities may join teachers and parents; no private or home schools

Commissioner and local board or state superintendent in state-operated school district; commissioner has final authority

SEA within 30 days or

New Mexico

Five

None

Existing public schools

SEA

None

North Carolina

100 (five per district per year)

Charter must enroll 65 students and have at least three teachers (can request waiver in application with compelling reason)

Anyone; no home schools

SEA, LEA or state university; final approval by SEA

SEA which may approve charter

Ohio

20 start-ups in Lucas County; unlimited conversions in all school districts statewide; unlimited in “Big Eight” school districts

Schools must have minimum of 25 students

Anyone; no home schools

City, local, exempted village or joint vocational board of education; statewide SEA for Big Eight districts only; Lucas County Education Service Center and the University of Toledo in Lucas County only

None

Pennsylvania

None

None

Individual; one or more teachers who will teach at proposed school; parents or guardians of students who will attend school; any nonsectarian university or museum; any nonprofit, corporation, association, partnership or combination thereof; no private or home schools

LEA, two or more local boards may grant regional charter beginning in 1999-2000 school year

State Charter School Appeal Board (with 2% or 1,000 district resident signatures whichever is less after 7/1/99)

Rhode Island

20 (no more than 2 per district or four in districts with over 20,000 students)

No more than 6% of state’s school-age population

Existing public schools, groups of public school personnel or public school districts; no private or home schools

State board of regents with approval from commissioner of elementary and secondary education or LEA

None

South Carolina

None

None

Anyone; no home schools

LEA

SEA

Texas

120 SEA approved; unlimited local sponsored and at-risk

None

Public or private higher education institutions, nonprofit organizations, government entities, groups of parents or teachers; no home schools

LEA; SEA for open-enrollment charters

None

Utah

8 for a three year pilot program

None

An individual or group of individuals, including teachers and parents or guardians of students who will attend the school, or a not-for-profit legal entity organized under the laws of the state. No private or home schools.

State board of education. The local board will review the application and may offer suggestions or recommendations to which the state board shall give due consideration.  

None (final action subject to judicial review).

Virginia

The total number of schools shall not exceed ten percent of the school division’s total number of school, or two charter schools, whichever is greater.   Local school boards are authorized to limit the number of charter schools.

None

Any person, group or organization. No private or home schools.

Local school district.

None

Wisconsin

20 (10 districts may sponsor up to two schools each)

None

Anyone, but petition must be signed by 10% of teachers employed by district or 50% of teachers employed at one school; no private or home schools.

LEA applies to state superintendent for approval to sponsor; schools apply to local board; mayor can sponsor in Milwaukee

None (except in Milwaukee)

Wyoming

None

None

Anyone, but petition must be signed by 10% of the district’s teachers or 50% of the teachers in a school, and by 10% of parents of pupils in districts or 50% of parents of students in school; no private or home schools.

LEA

None

Appendix Table C. The Charter School Roadmap, September 1998.

 

Figure Captions

Figure 1.   Figure 1. Demographics of Profiled Charter Schools.   Data from Charter schools data, (n. d. ).

 

Figure 1. Demographics of Profiled Charter Schools

School and Location

Year First Chartered and Authorizer

Grades

Enrollment

Student Ethnicity

English Learners

Subsidized Meals

Special Needs

Per Pupil Spending

Distinctive Programs and Features

The Arts and Technology
Academy Public Charter School
Washington, D. C.

1998 Special charter school board

Pre-K-6

615

98% Afr. Am.
2% Other

0%

97%

7%

$8,650

Basic skills plus arts Extended day/year Mosaica national management affiliation

BASIS School, Inc. Tucson, Ariz.

1998 State

5-12

246

74% White 12% Hispanic
4% Afr. Am.
10% Asian Am.

1%

Not applicable

1%

$5,339

European academic tradition 12 of 30 courses qualify as Advanced Placement Only Arizona school to have scores above the 90th percentile on math SAT 9 in all grades

Community of Peace Academy St. Paul, Minn.

1995 Local district

K-12

546

70% Hmong
20% Afr. Am.
10% Hispanic, Eritrian, White, Vietnamese, & Am. Indian

75%

80%

10%

$10,355

Non-violent community focus and award-winning character education program High levels of support for English language learners Looping to build relationships and support

KIPP Academy Houston Houston, Texas

1994 State

5-8

346

77% Hispanic
21% Afr. Am.
2% Asian Am. & White

8%

86%

5%

$8,670

KIPP, Inc. national college prep program Extended day/year 85% of students enter college; 94% are first-generation college students

Oglethorpe Charter School Savannah, Ga.

1998 Local district

6-8

319

51% White
38% Afr. Am.
4% Asian Am.
3% Hispanic
4% Other

0%

20%

5%

$6,000

Parent contract to donate 20 hours a year Core Knowledge curriculum Character education focus

Ralph A. Gates Elementary School
Lake Forest, Calif. (Los Angeles Basin)

1999 Local district

K-6

850

72% Hispanic
22% White
2% Asian Am.
2% Filipino
1% Afr. Am.
1% Multi-racial

44%

63%

5%

$5,367

School facility houses two-way Spanish-English immersion charter program for 43% of students Multiple language programs during and after school for students and parents Regrouping across classes and grades for reading and math

Roxbury Preparatory Charter School Boston, Mass.

1999 State

6-8

180

80% Afr. Am.
20% Hispanic

0%

56%

7%

$12,910

66% of students enter below grade level; 100% continue in college prep high schools Mandated homework support, Saturday school, summer school for poor grades Curriculum developed by staff based on student performance on school comprehensive exams

The School of Arts and Sciences Tallahassee, Fla.

1999 Local district

K-8

226

62% White
22% Afr. Am.
6% Hispanic
3% Asian Am.
7% Multi-racial

2%

19%

22%

$5,750

Multi-age classrooms, looping Developmental, project-based approach No grades; student portfolios

 

 

 

 

To decide what kind of college may best meet your needs and requirements there are lots of things to think about. Listed are some factors that you will have to think in determining where you would like to go to the college.

Organization- College or University, Private or Public, or Church sponsored. Colleges are either public or private. Public colleges are one that is supported by state where they are situated. Many extremely ranked colleges in United States are the state-supported organizations. These colleges often provide excellent education at the price for in-state resident, which is lesser than similar private colleges. At early steps of your study, I would hearten you to think both private & public colleges.

Whereas private colleges often cost little more than the comparable state organizations, they often have monetary means to give generous need based or the scholarship based financial help. This help will make cost of the private college same or else less than attending the state college.

More choosy private universities & colleges have got religious association. The amount of spiritual control varies. But at beginning of the college search, we encourage you to examine all the private colleges, irrespective of the religious affiliation.

Educational- what courses & majors you are looking for?

Most important cause for going to the college is getting education. The kind of academic atmosphere & range of courses studied is significant factor to consider when choosing the college. Be cautious, however, of selecting the college based exclusively on it having particular major or else field of study. Investigation shows that about 90% of college graduates don’t major in field of study that they initially had intended. This occurs for some reasons.

First, majority of the colleges have got majors in the subjects that you have never studied before like political science and anthropology. Next, as you get experience & maturity in the college, then your interests might change. Take some time to discover your choices and be sensible about your gifts. Make sure to follow a route of study, which is a genuine attention to you, not only one you imagine might lead to good career.

If you are having strong interest in particular area, like science, then it is vital to evaluate college’s services & offerings in those particular areas to ensure they have sufficient resources. Keep in mind that lots of smaller colleges might not present majors in some professional fields, like business, engineering, and physical therapy. And if you are some of specific field of the study, make sure that colleges & universities you think offer major.

Do not exclude smaller college, but just because you think, sources might be inadequate. Keep in mind that all the resources of college are obtainable to the undergraduate students while at the large university; lots of specialized equipment may be reserved for the graduate students only. A few of biggest producers of the PhD’s in the country are some small colleges.

All colleges are created different. Make sure you do your research because if a college is cheap, it may be cheap for a reason. Going to school is one of the most important stepping stones in your life. Make sure you do your work.

Forms of Domestic Violence and Development of

Women through Education

INTRODUCTION

            However much a mother may love her children, it is all but impossible for her to provide high-quality child care if she herself is poor and oppressed, illiterate and uninformed, anemic and unhealthy, has five or six other children, lives in a slum or shanty, has neither clean water nor safe sanitation, and if she is without the necessary support either from health services, or from her society, or from the father of her childen.
                                                          – Vulimiri Ramalingaswami, “The Asian Enigma”

            Women constitute almost half of the population in the world. But the hegemonic masculine ideology made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal opportunities in different parts of the world. The rise of feminist ideas has, however, led to the tremendous improvement of women’s condition through out the world in recent times. Access to education has been one of the most pressing demands of theses women’s rights movements. Women’s education in India has also been a major preoccupation of both the government and civil society as educated women can play a very important role in the development of the country.      

·                     India has world’s largest number of professionally qualified women.

·                     India has largest population of working women in the world.

·                     India has more number of doctors, surgeons, scientists, professors than the US.

What is Domestic Violence?

            Domestic violence is controlling behaviour and includes all kinds of physical, sexual, economic, psychological and emotional abuse within all kinds of intimate relationships. The perpetrators of domestic violence or abuse are usually men and the victims or survivors are usually women and children that they know. It includes:

• Punching and slapping.

• Kicking and hair pulling.

• Biting and pinching.

• Pushing and shoving.

• Being forced to have sex.

• Being beaten or cut with other objects.

• Disrespect, neglect and emotional blackmail.

• Verbal abuse and swearing.

• Being prevented from going out or seeing people – being isolated.

FORMS OF DOMESTIC VIOLENCE

The following are the forms of Domestic Violence:

1.       Physical Abuse

2.       Sexual Abuse

3.       Psychological Abuse

4.       Emotional Abuse

5.       Financial Abuse

1. Psysical Abuse:     

            Physical abuse is the most visible form of abuse and most likely (with sexual abuse) to give rise to criminal charges. Injuries include black eyes, cut lips, bruising, fractures, deafness, blindness, internal bleeding, missing teeth, persistent ill health, miscarriages, and injuries to a foetus and death. Injury sites are often concealed by clothing or hair. It can include slaps, shoves, pushing, being thrown across the room or down the stairs, kicking, stamping, strangulation, burns and scalds, being attacked with weapons such as knives, household objects, firearms etc internally as well as externally.

2. Sexual Abuse:

            Sexual Abuse in an abusive relationship is another form of violence, control and degradation. It includes rape, sexual assaults (including with implements),enforced prostitution, enforced sexual practices including being forced to watch or engage in pornography.

3. Psychological Abuse:

            Psychological abuse examples include “Jeckyll and Hyde” behaviour, preventing contact with friends and families, constant belittling and humiliating things being said, claims that children will be removed if anyone is told of abuse, controlling behaviours, deliberately enforcing dependency, constant statements that the victim is mentally ill etc.

4. Emotional Abuse:

            Emotional abuse is an attack on victims’ personality and well being and is often described as worse than physical violence. It may be referred to as “mind-games”. It frequently amounts to the abuser assuming a tight and unhealthy control of all members of the family, which may become increasingly isolated in the community.

            Examples include threats of violence to all members of family, constant criticism of the victim saying she is ugly, ignorant or worthless, using the children as ammunition, family life and mood being dictated by abuser (abuser-centric) continual questioning, humiliation in public, playing on community and cultural fears, threats to have the children removed, threats to kill or have deported, threat that the abuser will commit suicide, threats and actual violence to family pets etc.

5. Financial Abuse:

            Financial Abuse is essentially the deprivation of and / or the control of money whether earned or benefits.

            An abuser may refuse to pay bills or prevent the victim from having any control over the family finances. The abuser may steal money belonging to the victim or children. Essential services such as gas and electricity may be cut off. The mother may be forced to support the children solely on what she can earn without assistance or child benefit if this is claimed by the abuser. An abuser may deliberately spend money on himself or sell the woman’s possessions and family furniture.

CRIME AGAINST WOMEN IN INDIA

·        One crime against women every three minutes

·        One rape every 29 minutes

·        One dowry death case every 77 minutes

·        One case of cruelty by husband and relatives every nine minutes

·        Once suicide every 4 hours

Source: National Crime Records Bureau

The main problems of Indian women:

·         Malnutrition: India has exceptionally high rates of child malnutrition, because tradition in India requires that women eat last and least throughout their lives, even when pregnant and lactating. Malnourished women give birth to malnourished children, perpetuating the cycle.

·         Poor Health: Females receive less health care than males. Many women die in childbirth of easily prevented complications. Working conditions and environmental pollution further impairs women’s health.

·         Lack of education: Families are far less likely to educate girls than boys, and far more likely to pull them out of school, either to help out at home or from fear of violence.

·         Overwork: Women work longer hours and their work is more arduous than men’s, yet their work is unrecognized. Men report that “women, like children, eat and do nothing. ” Technological progress in agriculture has had a negative impact on women.

·         Unskilled: In women’s primary employment sector – agriculture – extension services overlook women.

·         Mistreatment: In recent years, there has been an alarming rise in atrocities against women in India, in terms of rapes, assaults and dowry-related murders. Fear of violence suppresses the aspirations of all women. Female infanticide and sex-selective abortions are additional forms of violence that reflect the devaluing of females in Indian society.

·         Powerlessness: While women are guaranteed equality under the constitution, legal protection has little effect in the face of prevailing patriarchal traditions. Women lack power to decide who they will marry, and are often married off as children. Legal loopholes are used to deny women inheritance rights.

            India has a long history of activism for women’s welfare and rights, which has increasingly focused on women’s economic rights. A range of government programs have been launched to increase economic opportunity for women, although there appear to be no existing programs to address the cultural and traditional discrimination against women that leads to her abject conditions.

GOVERNEMNT ROLE TO MINIMIZE DOMESTIC VIOLENCE IN INDIA

            Overall, a crime against women is committed every three minutes in India, according to India’s National Crime Records Bureau. Despite the scale of the problem, there had been no specific legislation to deal with actual abuse or the threat of abuse at home. Domestic violence, under the new law, includes “actual abuse or the threat of abuse whether physical, sexual, emotional or economic,” a statement from the federal ministry of women and child development said.

            “We have been trying for long to protect women from domestic violence. In India alone, around 70% of women are victim of these violent acts in one or the other form,” junior minister for women and child development Renuka Chowdhury told the Press Trust of India news agency. They say a bill alone will not help in preventing domestic abuse; what is needed is a change in mind sets.

            In January 1992, the National Commission for Women (NCW), was set up as a statutory body under the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act No. 20 of 1990 of Govt. of India ) to review the constitutional and legal safeguards for women; recommend remedial legislative measures, facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the Government on all policy matters affecting women.

            There are so many government and non-government organizations are working for the benefits of women. Both Central and State governments are continuing so many programmes for the development of women in the country.

 DEVELOPMENT OF WOMEN THROUGH EDUCATION

            You can tell the condition of a nation by looking at the status of its women.
                                                                                                                 - Jawaharlal Nehru

Female Literacy in India:

            According to last census held in 2001, the percentage of female literacy in the country is 54. 16%. The literacy rate in the country has increased from 18. 33% in 1951 to 65. 38% as per 2001 census. The female literacy rate has also increased from 8. 86% in 1951 to 54. 16%. It is noticed that the female literacy rate during the period 1991-2001 increased by 14. 87% whereas male literacy rate rose by 11. 72%. Hence the female literacy rate actually increased by 3. 15% more compared to male literacy rate.

Factors Responsible for Poor Female Literacy Rate:

Historically, a variety of factors have been found to be responsible for poor female literate rate, viz.

·         Gender based inequality.

·         Social discrimination and economic exploitation.

·         Occupation of girl child in domestic chores.

·         Low enrolment of girls in schools.

·         Low retention rate and high dropout rate.

The main strategies adopted by the Government for increasing female literacy in the country include:

1.       National Literacy Mission for imparting functional literacy

2.       Universalisation for Elementary Education

3.       Non-Formal Education

History of Women’s Education in India: Although in the Vedic period women had access to education in India, they had gradually lost this right. However, in the British period there was revival of interest in women’s education in India. During this period, various socio religious movements led by eminent persons like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Iswar Chandra Vidyasagar emphasized on women’s education in India. Mahatma Jyotiba Phule, Periyar and Baba Saheb Ambedkar were leaders of the lower castes in India who took various initiatives to make education available to the women of India. However women’s education got a fillip after the country got independence in 1947 and the government has taken various measures to provide education to all Indian women. As a result women’s literacy rate has grown over the three decades and the growth of female literacy has in fact been higher than that of male literacy rate. While in 1971 only 22% of Indian women were literate, by the end of 2001 54. 16% female were literate. The growth of female literacy rate is 14. 87% as compared to 11. 72 % of that of male literacy rate.

Importance of Women’s Education in India: Women’s education in India plays a very important role in the overall development of the country. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources, but in improving the quality of life at home and outside. Educated women not only tend to promote education of their girl children, but also can provide better guidance to all their children. Moreover educated women can also help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population.

Obstacles: Gender discrimination still persists in India and lot more needs to be done in the field of women’s education in India. The gap in the male-female literacy rate is just a simple indicator. While the male literary rate is more than 75% according to the 2001 census, the female literacy rate is just 54. 16%. Prevailing prejudices, low enrollment of girl child in the schools, engagements of girl children in domestic works and high drop out rate are major obstacles in the path of making all Indian women educated.

            According to the Women and Child Development study, 45 percent of Indian women are slapped, kicked or beaten by their husbands. India also had the highest rate of violence during pregnancy. Of the women reporting violence, 50 percent were kicked, beaten or hit when pregnant. About 74. 8 percent of the women who reported violence have attempted to commit suicide. It shows the importance of education. Educated woman has more strength and power to face the challenges when compared to uneducated woman.

            Kumud Sharma of the Centre for Women’s Development Studies in New Delhi traced the correlation between education and domestic violence to patriarchal attitudes. “Educated women are aware of their rights,” she said. “They are no longer willing to follow commands blindly. When they ask questions, it causes conflicts, which, in turn, leads to violence. In many Indian states, working women are asked to hand over their paycheck to the husband and have no control over their finances. So, if they stop doing so or start asserting their right, there is bound to be friction. “

            It is necessary to establish some more colleges and universities in India.   The number of Residential Schools for SC/ST and BC’s is not sufficient today. So, increase the number of these schools in the both rural and urban areas. Today’s children are tomorrow’s citizens. Take care about future generation. Then only India will become developed country in the future.

CONCLUSIONS

            Now we are living in the modern and technological world. Women are also entering in all the fields like men for doing job. Educated women have better opportunity compared to uneducated women in the society. They are facing so many problems in the society. With the help of education and law and order it is easy to escape from those problems. So it is necessary to educate all types of women in the society. Education gives strength, wealth, health and power to the individual.

 According to Swami Vivekandanda:

“We want that education by which character is formed, strength of mind increased and intellect is expanded, and by which one can stand on one’s own feet”.       

            The plight of women in medieval India and at the starting of modern India can be summed up in the words of great poet Rabindranath Tagore:

“O Lord Why has you not given woman the right to conquer her destiny?
Why does she have to wait head bowed,
By the roadside, Waiting with tired patience,
Hoping for a miracle in the morrow?”

References:

1.       National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. (2001). The National Reading Panel: Reports of the Subgroups.

2.       UNESCO Institute for Statistics: Literacy rates, youth (15-24) and adult (15+), by region and gender (September 2006 Assessment).

3.    Child and Women Development Report, (2006), Ministry of Women and Child  

      Development, Government of India, New Delhi.

4.     National Family Health Survey, (2006), Government of India, New Delhi.

5.     National Crime Records Bureau, (2007), Government of India, New Delhi.

6.    Census of India, (2001), Government of India, New Delhi.

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World Development Report 2004: through the lenses of Marketing of Education Service in India 

Dr. Amalesh Bhowal,Professor, Department of Commerce, Assam University.

E-mail: amalesh_b1@rediffmail. com

 1. 1     Introduction:

Article 10, contained in the Declaration On The Responsibilities Of The Present Generation Towards Future Generations, mentions that  “The present generations should ensure the conditions of equitable, sustainable and universal socio-economic development of future generations… Education is an important instrument…”

There is a new looking at the world of education using the lenses of marketing. Evidence is the General Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS). It aimed at deregulating international markets in services, including education. Corollary: Education is a commodity too which can be traded; in other words, there exists ‘Educational Service Market. To operate in that market, we need Principles and Theories for Marketing of Education Service. ] “The idea behind these principles is the creation of a open, global market place where services, like education, can be traded… GATS covers the educational services of all countries whose educational systems are not exclusively provided by the public sector, or those educational systems that have commercial purposes. ”

In the mean time, the World Bank has published “World Development Report 2004 – Making Services Work for Poor People”. It provides a practical framework for making the services that contribute to ‘human development work’ for poor people. The report included services that have the most direct link with human development – education, health, water, sanitation, and electricity.

1. 2     Main Objective of the paper:

In the backdrop of the above-mentioned International Prescriptions, the paper attempted to explore about the rationality of application of Principles of Service Marketing and lessons to be learnt from World Development Report 2004 regarding Marketing of Education Service.

1. 3     Rationality of the study:

This type of study may lead to the understanding of the debate whether “Marketing of Education Service” is synonymous with the “Commercialisation of Education Service”.

2. 1     Marketing of Education Service [MES]:

            Marketing of Education Service refers to performing of activities [either with profit motive or service motive] which directs the flow of educational goods and services from the producer, provider and developer to the consumer of goods and services to satisfy the needs of parties involved [i. e. policy makers, provider and customers] like Psychological, economic and safety, Social, esteem and self-actualisation needs.

2. 2     Current Failure of MES:

 Current Education Services to the poor are failing poor people due to: –

[1] Diversion of large share of the education budget spending towards the non-poor,

[2] Non-reaching of the share of the budget, directed to the poor, to the front line service providers

[3] Disincentives to service providers, Prevalence of public corruption and undesirable political influence in education,

[4] Lower level demand for education because of cultural factors.

Thus, education failed because of over dominance of Finance function; and under importance of Marketing Function.

2. 3     Rationality Of Adopting The Principles Of Service Marketing In MES:

            The report asks “putting poor people at the centre of the service provision”. This is akin to the thinking of Customer centric marketing of Srvices. The societies, generally, choose the long route because there are evidences of market failures. Similarly the societies feel traditional short route [i. e. consumers’ power over providers] is inadequate viewed from equity-dimension. But there exists evidences of the “government failures” associated with the long route; and, “they may be so serve that, in some cases, the market solution may actually leave poor people better off”. This is necessary for balancing the problems associated with the long route of accountability with the short route.

2. 4     Dimensions Of MES:

 Dimensions in respect of the Marketing of Education Service are of two types:

[A] Marketing functions related to educational goods: – These functions include [1] Marketing Research and [2] Targeting customers with appropriate Market Mix i. e. Developing, Pricing, Promoting, and, Distributing Educational Goods or Educational product.

[B] Marketing functions related to educational services: – These functions include [1] Marketing Research and [2] Targeting customers with appropriate Market Mix i. e. [a] Developing Product, [b] Pricing, [c] Promoting, [d] Distributing, [e] Orienting in-house People, [f] Processing, [g] Providing Physical evidence, [h] having and following policy, and, [i] Ensuring Peoples Participation in Education Service.

Interestingly, the report seems to be absolutely silent in respect of ‘Marketing functions related to educational goods’.

2. 5     Relationships, Triangle And Types In MES:

The report argued for three key relationships in MES: [a] Between poor people and providers, [b] between poor people and policymakers, and [c] between policy makers and providers. Thus, there exists Education Service Marketing Triangle. Policy Makers, service providers and customers/poor people in fact, should work together for MES [from diagram]. But they require three different types of marketing -

[a] Internal marketing between Policy Makers and Providers-to enable service promise.

[b] External Marketing between Policy Makers and Customers/poor people – to make promises.

[c] Interactive Marketing or Real–time Marketing between Providers and Customers – to keep promises made. There must be perfect alignment in the three different type of Marketing.